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»/  •////"  ftnrinit  Ji/tt/t /rs'. •/,''//.?  <>('ln>n  <i/ifl  I'lr-ct  fuirf  ln>n  <ntfl 
/idi-t  f'fni/,f>rHtfI^fHHfHt  ttiiijn'rr: linn  '.  fluty'.  '£'.' 


SKETCHES 

OF 

UNIVERSAL  HISTORY, 

SACRED  AND  PROFANE, 

FROM  THE 

CREATION  OF   THE  WORLD,   TO  THE  YEAR  1818, 
OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA  : 

IN  THREE  PARTS. 
WITH 

AN  APPENDIX, 

AND 
A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENT? 

BY  FREDERICK  BUTLER,  A.  M. 

AUTHOR   OF    THE    CATECHETICAL    COMPEND    OF    GENERAL    HISTORV. 


FOURTH  EDITION,    CORRECTED  BY    THE    AUTHOR,    AND  CONTIN- 
UED   DOWN    TO    THE    YEAR     1822. 


HARTFORD, 
OLIVER  D.  COOKE. 

1822. 


DISTRICT  OF  CONNECTICUT,  ss. 

(L.  S.)  BE  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  the  third  day  of  Novem- 
ber, in  the  forty-third  year  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  Cooke  and  Hale,  of  the  said  district,  have  deposited  in  this 
office  the  title  of  a  Book,  the  right  whereof  they  claim  as  proprietors, 
in  the  words  following,  to  wit : — "  Sketches  of  Universal  History, 
Sacred  and  Profane,  from  the  Creation  of  the  World,  to  the  year  1818, 
of  the  Christian  Era :  in  three  parts,  with  an  Appendix,  and  a  Chro- 
nological table  of  contents.  By  Frederick  Butler,  A.  M.  author  of  the 
Catechetical  Compend  of  General  History,"  in  conformity  to  the  act 
«f  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  An  act  for  the  en- 
couragement of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  Maps,  Charts  and 
Books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times 
therein  mentioned." 

R.  I.  INGERSOLL, 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  Connecticut. 
A  true  copy  of  Record,  examined  and  sealed  by  me, 

R.  I.  INGERSOLL, 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  Connecticut 


PREFACE. 


TO  shew  that  one  supreme,  omnipotent,  eternal  God  created  the  universe,  that  his 
superintending  providence  preserves  and  governs  all  things  ;  that  his  wisdom  regu- 
late* and  controls  all  events  ;  that  the  smallest  as  well  as  the  largest  are  equally 
the  objects  of  his  care  ;  that  "not  a  sparrow  falleth  to  the  ground  without  his  no- 
tice, and  even  the  hairs  of  our  heads  are  all  numbered,"  is  the  great  object  of  thii 
work — but  more  particularly  of  the  first  part 

To  accomplish  this  object  with  the  most  forcible  demonstration,  I  have  shewn  the 
great  designs  of  God  in  the  government  of  men,  by  unfolding  a  succession  of  prophe- 
cies, by  which  he  announced  a  grand  succession  of  events,  from  the  fall  of  man  down 
to  this  day,  and  to  the  end  of  the  world 

To  enforce  conviction,  I  have  recorded  a  narrative  of  the  most  important  events 
which  have  fulfilled  these  prophecies,  in  regular  succession,  from  the  first  promise  of 
God  to  Adam,  down  to  this  day,  as  (hey  stand  recorded  by  the  most  approved  histori- 
ans. In  this  narrative  it  clearly  appears,  that  all  the  historians,  through  all  ages  of 
the  world,  have  done  no  more  than  record  the  will  and  government  of  God,  as  predic- 
ted by  his  inspired  prophets,  hundreds  and  thousands  of  years  before  they  were  ac- 
complished. 

To  render  the  design  of  this  narrative  as  clear  and  forcible  as  possible,  I  have  not 
only  confined  it  to  those  nations  who  were  the  immediate  subjects  of  the  prophecies, 
but  to  such  parts  of  their  history,  as  immediately  regard  the  accomplishment  of  these 
great  events  That  part  of  the  history  of  the  four  gre^t  empires,  noticed  in  the  great 
image  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  Daninl's  four  beasts,  as  regards  their  governments, 
laws,  manners  and  customs,  together  with  a  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  other  great 
kingdoms  and  empires,  not  immediately  connected  with  the  prophecies,  I  have  noticed 
separately,  by  way  of  Appendix 

All  prophecy  was  given  by  inspiration  of  God,  and  all  ancient  prophecy  through  the 
prophf.ts  of  the  ancient  Jewish  Church,  which  sprang  from  the  family  of  Abraham, 
and  regarded  those  nations  only,  which  were  connected  with  the  Jewish  history  •  This 
was  all  that  was  necessary, — both  in  its  extent  and  duration — to  shew  that  the  gov- 
ernment of  God  is  both  universal  and  eternal 

7'he  history  of  the  other  great  nations  is  of  impoitance  to  be  known  and  studied,  as 
ancient  monuments  of  wisdom,  virtue,  patience,  fortitude,  industry,  arts  and  arms — 
and  their  systems  and  maxims  of  government,  have  proved  useful  and  important  mod- 
els to  after  ages  ;  have  led  to  the  improvements  of  the  age  in  which  we  live,  and  to 
the  perfection  of  that  well  balancpd  system  of  government  which  we  enjoy 

The  luxury  and  corruptions  which  followed  all  the  great  conquests  ;  the  prostration 
of  the  virtues  by  those  very  corruptions,  and  the  general  licentiousness  which  followed 
in  their  train,  together  with  faction*,  discord,  weakness  and  ruin,  which  ever  closed 
the  political  scene,  ought  to  serve  as  so  many  beacons,  to  guide  us,  and  all  after  ages  , 
in  the  way  of  wisdom,  virtue,  and  duty,  and  to  guard  us  against  the  calamities  of  li- 
centious ambition,  which  have  invariably  proved  their  ruin. 

The  economy  of  thu  governments  of  the  Assyrian.  Chaldean,  Median  and  Persian 
Monarchies,  are  very  partially  known  to  us — they  were  not  only  absolute  monarchies, 
but  from  the  rude  and  barbarous  ages  in  which  they  were  founded,  we  have  reason  to 
conclude  their  systems  were  very  limited,  and  that  the  whole  depended  very 
much  upon  th-  will  of  the  !<ing,  with  this  exception,  that  the  king  could  not  change 
even  his  own  will  when  once  it  became  a  law 

The  union  of  all  these  !<  injrdoms  *tood  upon  the  same  basis,  under  the  Medo-  Persian 
Empire.  This  system  was  sufficient  to  protect  a  rising  stale,  whilst  virtue  ruled,  but 
bad  no  powers  to  save  a  nation  when  sinking  under  licentiousness  and  corrupt  ambi- 
tion 

All  the  renowned  wisdom  of  the  philosophers  and  legislators  of  Greece  and  Rome 
•'O  m.-ir.-.  with    t'l  th-ir  boasted  systemsi  of  liberty.     They  in  their    turn    all 
"dl  a  prey  to  licentious  ambition    The  kingdom  of  Esypt,  with  all  the  boasted  wisdom 
~"d  virile  cfber  ancient  institution*,  fell  a  prey  to  all-conquering  lust  and  ambition. 


PREFACE. 


As  we  (race  this  great  subject  through  the  two  succeeding  parts  of  this  work,  we 
•hall  find  that  all  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  are  under  the  same  condemnation,  together 
with  the  Turkish  Kmpire,  whose  broad  basis  stands  upon  the  ruins  of  all  the  ancient 
states  and  empires. 

How  far  that  true  balance  of  power,  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  the  English  and 
American  governments,  rr  ay  be  able  to  control  ambition,  licentiousness  and  corrup- 
tion, and  preserre  the  governments  and  liberties  of  the  nations;  remains  to  be  tested 
>>y  experience. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  work  I  have  endeavored  to  shew  the  happy  and  prosperous 
slate  of  the  Jews  under  their  theocracy,  and  that  their  wretchedness  commenced  with 
their  kingly  (government,  in  connection  with  their  false  religion.  I  have  endeavored 
to  illustrate  the  character  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  Republics,  and  shew  how  a 
corrupt  religion  and  a  want  of  the  true  balance  of  power  in  the  third  estate  in  the 
government  opened  the  way  for  factions,  which  proved  their  ruin 

[n  the  second  part,  I  have  endeavoured  to  shew  how  the  overbearing  ambition  of 
the  Roman  empire  proved  its  own  rum,  and  how  the  distresses  she  had  inflicted  upon 
•>ther  nations  recoiled  back  upon  herself,  until  luxury  and  refinement  were  swallowed 
!tp  and  lost  in  ignorance  and  barbarism— also,  what  struggles  meu  had  to  endure  O 
iise  out  of  barbarism  into  a  state  of  ciyil  refinement, 

In  the  pursuit  of  this  subject  I  have  endeavoured  to  shew  bow  much  the  happiness 
*nd  misery  of  men  depend  upon  individual  character,  and  have  illustrated  this  in  the 
••haracters  of  Alfred  the  great,  contrasted  witli  William  I  —  styled  the  conqueror  ;  of 
Kdward  III.  contrasted  with  Edward  IV.;  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Q,ueen  Ann,  con- 
trasted with  James  II.  and  Charles  I.  and  II.  and  in  this  way  have  shewn  how  Eng- 
•and  emerged  from  the  Feudal  system,  and  acquired  the  supremacy  of  the  three  es- 
tates in  her  government — the  excellency  of  this  government  I  have  endeavoured  to 
shew,  in  the  wonderful  display  of  wisdom,  order,  happiness,  peace  aud  prosperity  in 
the  American  Republic. 

In  the  third  part  I  have  endeavoured  to  shew  the  character  of  the  republics  of  Po- 
land and  of  France,  and  to  render  it  plain  and  intelligible,  that  republics  without  the 
balance  of  power  in  the  three  estates,  soon  become  the  nurseries  of  factions,  and  that 
<he  licentiousness  of  liberty  cherishes  the  strife  of  party,  until  some  idol  chief  strips 
'he  people  of  their  rights,  and  becomes  their  despot. 

I  have  drawn  alfufllengtb  the  characters  of  Charles  XII.  and  Bonaparte,  to  illus- 
trate the  more  strikingly  the  worth  of  the  character  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  of 
Prederiek  the  Great  of  Prussia,  and  Alexander  the  Great  of  Russia — but  more  imme- 
Jiately  the  tiue  worth  of  Washington. 

It  has  been  my  first  object  through  the  whole  work  to  shew  the  influence  and  impor- 
tance of  religion — to  contrast  the  pure  religion  of  the  Jews  with  the  idolatry  of  the 
which  they  maintained  the  purity  of  their  church.  To  contrast  particularly 
Uve  religion  of  Christ  and  his  Apostle?,  with  the  religion  of  the  Popes  and  Mahomet  ; 
and  to  shew  that  Martin  Luther  was  the  angel  of  the  gospel  for  the  age  in  which  he 
Hved,  and  will  continue  to  be  the  angel  of  the  gospel  until  the  millennial  day,  through 
(be  medium  of  the  heralds  of  the  cross  in  the  protestant  cause. 

As  this  work  is  designed  immediately  for  the  use  of  schools,  instructors  may  avail 
themselves  of  the  chronological  table  of  contents  to  frame  questions  for  examination, 
instruction  by  lectures  upon  the  maps,  or  otherwise, 
\Vr'.h";'sf,e!<J,  Conn    Oct.  15,    1818, 


SKETCHES  OF 

UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 

PART  FIRST, 


PROM  THE  CREATION,   TO  THE  SUBVERSION  OF  THE  RO 
MAN  EMPIRE,  1450. 


CHAP.  I. 


History — its  divisions  and  use — -from  the  creation  to  the  flood 
— -from  the  flood  to  the  Building  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 


HISTORY  is  the  great  medium  by  which  we  are  enabled  to 
perpetuate  the  occurrence  of  events — and  through  which  we 
may  take  a  retrospective  view  of  those  that  are  past. 

It  may  be  divided  into  four  great  parts,  history  before  the 
flood,  termed  antediluvian,  history  since  the  flood  termed 
postdiluvian  :  history  from  the  flood  to  Christ,  termed  ancient, 
and  since  Christ,  termed  modern  history.  All  that  is  written 
by  the  immediate  inspiration  of  God,  is  termed  sacred  ;  such 
is  the  history  of  the  bible  :  all  other  history  comes  under 
the  general  denomination  of  profane. 

It  furnishes  a  vast  field  of  moral  and  religious  instruction, 
and  is  designed  to  amuse  the  imagination,  improve  the  under- 
standing, correct  the  judgment,  and  mend  the  heart  by  leading 
us  up  to  God,  as  the  great  author,  preserver  and  governor 
of  all  things. 

That  which  first  claims  our  attention,  in  the  annals  of  time, 
1* 


8  NINEVEH  AND  BABYLON. 

magnitude,  of  any  that  had  been  attempted  since  the  flood. 
At  this,  they  wrought  unchecked  forty  years,  when  God  in 
judgment,  suffered  them  to  go  no  farther,  but  put  an  end  to 
their  work  by  confounding  their  speech. 

Here  was  the  origin  of  the  confusion  of  tongues,  from 
whence  arose  all  the  variety  of  language,  which  has  appeared 
upon  the  earth.  Here  Nimrod,  who  was  a  mighty  hunter  be- 
fore the  Lord,  laid  the  foundations  of  the  renowned  city  of 
Babylon,  in  the  year  of  the  world  1771.  This  city  stood  at 
the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris  :  was  wall- 
ed in  the  year  1730,  and  became  the  famous  capital  of  the 
Chaldean  Monarchy.  About  the  year  1770,  Ninas  built 
Nineveh,  the  subsequent  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Monarchy. 
During  this  period,  of  about  1800  years,  the  employment  of 
men,  and  the  state  of  society,  had  probably  continued  the 
same. 

These  two  great  cities  soon  acquired  a  degree  of  wealth,  in- 
fluence and  power,  which  produced  the  same  effects  upon  so- 
ciety and  the  world,  as  have  been  witnessed,  in  the  history 
of  all  the  great  cities  which  have  appeared  :  the  same  change 
of  manners,  habits  and  customs  :  the  ferocity,  barbarity  and 
uncultivated  state  of  the  hunters  and  shepherds,  began  to  re- 
ceive a  polish  and  refinement,  by  their  intercourse  with  the 
city.  The  same  lust  of  pleasure,  wealth  and  power,  began  to 
appear.  Each,  in  their  turn,  extended  their  conquest  over 
the  neighboring  countries,  until  they  gave  law  to  all  the  eas- 
tern world.  During  this  whole  period,  men  were  without 
the  knowledge  of  God,  and  were  sunk  in  the  most  barbarous 
and  absurd  idolatry. 


CHAP.  II. 

From  the  call  of  Abraham  and  his  family,  to  the  death  of  Jo- 
seph his  Great-Grandson  in  Egypt. 

About  417  years  after  the  flood,  God  saw  the  corruption 
of  all  that  eastern  world  ;  and  that  they  had  lost  the  knowl- 
edge and  worship  of  the  true  God.  He  then  called  Abraham 
from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  near  the  plains  of  Shinar  ;  and  di- 
rected him  to  go  out  into  a  wild  uncultivated  desert,  lying  to 
the  west,  near  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  and 


THE    GALL  OF    ABRAHAM.  3 

there  settle.  Abraham  obeyed  the  command,  went  out  into 
this  remote  land  ;  by  permission,  took  with  him  Lot,  his  bro- 
ther's son,  and  formed  a  new  settlement. 

Here  God  began  to  make  a  new  display  of  himself  to  Abra- 
ham and  to  the  world.  Here  he  unfolded  his  promises  to 
Abraham.  1st.  That  he  would  give  to  him  and  his  posteri- 
ty the  land,  when  as  yet  he  had  no  children.  2d.  That  his 
seed  should  sojourn  in  a  strange  land  ;  be  evil  treated  400 
years,  and  then  be  restored  to  their  own  land.  He  gave  him 
a  son,  in  a  miraculous  manner  ;  and  although  he  was  the 
heir  of  promise,  God  ordered  him  to  sacrifice  the  lad.  When 
he  had  so  far  obeyed  the  command,  as  to  erect  the  altar,  arid 
raise  the  knife  for  execution  ;  the  voice  of  God  exclaimed  ; 
"  Lay  not  thine  hand  upon  the  lad."  And  Abraham  caught 
a  ram  in  a  thicket  and  sacrificed  it  to  the  Lord. 

Thus  having  tried  the  faith  of  Abraham,  abolished  through 
him  the  ancient  custom  of  human  sacrifice,  which  was  com- 
mon in  the  land  of  his  fathers  ;  and  having  taught  his  people 
in  all  generations  of  the  world,  although  he  slay  them  to  trust 
in  him  ;  he  prospered  Abraham  greatly  in  the  land,  gave  him 
flocks  and  herds,  and  made  him  lord  of  great  possessions. 

When  Isaac,  the  child  of  promise  was  born,  Abraham  drove 
out  Hagar  his  maid,  with  Ishmael  her  son,  to  wander  in  the 
desert :  that  Ishmael,  upon  whom  the  angel  had  pronounced 
this  prophecy  before  he  was  born,  that "  he  should  be  a  wild 
man,  his  hand  should  be  against  every  man,  and  every  man's 
against  him,  and  yet  he  should  dwell  in  the  presence  of  all  his 
brethren" — that  Ishmael,  for  whose  sake  God  gave  this  con- 
solation to  Hagar  his  mother,  in  her  distress  in  the  desert. 
"  Take  the  lad  in  thine  hand,  for  I  will  make  him  a  great  na- 
tion." Ishmael  and  Hagar  his  mother,  went  out  accordingly  ; 
and  in  him,  and  his  posterity,  the  prophecy  has  been  literally 
accomplished.  The  Arabs  are  a  thieving,  robbing,  plunder- 
ing race  to  this  day,  and  have  never  been  conquered. 

When  Isaac  arrived  at  the  age  of  manhood,  Abraham  sent 
out  his  servant  to  the  land  of  his  fathers,  and  took  for  him 
Rebecca,  his  brother's  daughter  to  wife,  by  the  special  direc- 
tion of  God.  By  her  he  had  two  sons,  Esau  and  Jacob.  Abra- 
ham lived  to  a  good  old  age,  died,  and  was  buried  in  his  own 
tomb,  which  he  bought  ofEphronthe  Hittite,  for  a  family 
spulchre.  Esau  married  one  of  the  daughters  of  the  land, 


10  ISAAC,    JACOB    AND    JOSEPH. 

and  united  the  employment  of  hunting  with  that  of  husband- 
ry ;  but  Jacob  became  a  husbandman,  arid  kept  his  father's 
flocks.  To  Esau  were  born  sons  and  daughters  ;  and  to  Ja- 
cob twelve  sons,  who  became  heads  of  the  twelve  tribes  of 
Israel. 

The  history  of  Esau  and  Jacob,  is  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Genesis.  There  also  is  recorded  the  art  of  Rebecca,  to  ob- 
tain the  blessing  for  Jacob  her  favorite  son,  in  exclusion  of 
the  rightful  heir  ;  the  death  and  sepulture  of  good  old  Isaac, 
and  the  strife  and  bitterness  of  Esau  against  Jacob.  As  Jacob 
increased  in  his  family  and  wealth,  he  increased  in  favor  with 
God  ;  and  by  wrestling  with  the  angel,  he  obtained  the  bles- 
sing, with  the  name  of  Israel  :  also  the  mark  of  the  withered 
thigh,  by  the  hand  of  the  angel  ;  which  has  caused  the  He- 
brews, his  descendants,  to  exclude  the  thigh  of  all  animals, 
as  improper  food,  to  this  day. 

When  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob  or  Israel,  grew  into  life, 
their  father  cherished  an  unguarded  partiality  towards  Joseph, 
one  of  the  younger  sons,  which  excited  a  jealousy  and  resent- 
ment, on  the  part  of  his  brethren.  This,  together  with 
some  extraordinary  dreams,  which  Joseph  imprudently  rela 
ted,  increased  their  resentment  to  hatred,  and  malice,  which 
led  them  to 'revenge  upon  Joseph,  by  selling  him  to  the  Ish- 
maelites,  (or  Arabs)  and  to  deceive  his  father  by  a  false  re- 
port that  he  had  been  devoured  by  wild  beasts ;  this  they 
confirmed  by  shewing  his  bloody  coat  ;  a  barbarous  strata- 
gem practised  on  their  father,  by  dipping  the  coat  in  the 
blood  of  a  kid. 

These  Ishmaelites  carried  Joseph  down  into  Egypt,  where 
they  sold  him  as  a  slave.  Here  an  impious  attempt  was 
made  upon  .his  virtue,  by  his  master's  wife  ;  which  to  her 
severe  disappointment,  and  mortification,  he  resisted.  This 
led  her  falsely  to  accuse  him  to  his  master,  who  threw  him 
into  prison.  God  permitted  these  daring  acts  of  outrage  and 
cruelty,  to  shew,  for  our  instruction,  that  he  always  can,  and 
often  does,  bring  the  greatest  blessings  out  of  the  heaviest 
afflictions,  and,  to  increase  our  confidence  in  him. 

Here,  while  immured  in  the  walls  of  a  prison,  God  open- 
ed the  way  for  the  deliverance  of  Joseph.  When  one  oi 
his  fallow  prisoners  who  was  of  the  king's  household,  rolatei* 
'a  singular  dream,  Joseph  was  instructed  by  God  in  the  in- 
terpretation— which  was  accomplished  in  a  very  extraordi- 


PHARAOH,   JOSEPH    AND    HI9    BRETHREN.  11 

nary  manner.  This  came  to  the  ears  of  the  king,  who  soon 
had  occassion  to  send  for  Joseph  to  interpret  his  own  dream, 
of  the  seven  fat  and  seven  lean  kine.* 

This  intepretation  procured  for  Joseph  the  favor,  and 
confidence  of  the  king  :  raised  him  to  power,  and  brought 
him  near  the  throne.  When  the  seven  years  of  famine,  re- 
presented by  the  seven  lean  kine,  had  extended  into  the  land 
of  Canaan,  where  the  father  of  Joseph  dwelt,  he  sent  ten  of 
his  sons  into  Egypt  to  buy  corn. 

The  manner  in  which  they  were  received  ;  the  stratagem 
of  Joseph,  to  punish  them,  and  bring  down  his  younger  broth- 
er ;  the  second  journey  of  his  brethren,  the  severity  of  Jo- 
seph's treatment  of  them,  the  painful  sensations  of  his  own 
breast,  the  disclosure  of  himself  to  his  brethren,  his  sending 
for  his  aged  father  with  all  his  household,  and  supporting 
them  in  Egypt  ;  are  all  recorded  in  the  close  of  the  book  of 
Genesis,  in  a  striking  and  pathetic  manner,  not  to  be  ex- 
pressed by  any  other  pen.  This  interesting  narrative,  so 
full  of  moral  and  religious  instruction,  should  be  familiar  to 
all,  at  an  early  age. 

When  the  fulness  of  time  was  come,  that  the  good  old  Ja- 
cob should  be  gathered,  as  a  shock  of  corn  fully  ripe  ;  he  re- 
membered the  promise  of  God  to  his  grandfather  Abraham, 
that  his  posterity  should  sojourn  in  a  strange  land,  and  be 
evil  entreated  400  years  :  he  called  together  his  sons,  and 
gave  them  his  prophetic  blessing,!  and  charged  them  to  con- 
vey his  remains  to  the  land  of  his  fathers,  and  deposit  them 
in  the  family  tomb. 

This  command  was  faithfully  executed,  with  all  that  so- 
lemnity and  respect,  due  to  the  best  of  fathers  ;  and  the  fami-. 
ly  returned  into  Egypt,  where  they  continued  to  increase  and 
multiply,  under  all  their  former  prosperity. 

Here  again,  the  interesting  determination  of  Divine  provi- 
dence is  acknowledged.  The  dream  of  Joseph,  which  was 
so  offensive  to  his  brethren,  was  accomplished.  Their  for- 
mer sin  in  selling  him  into  Egypt,  now  stared  them  in  the 
face  ;  and  they,  fearing  his  power  and  vengeance,  after  the 
death  of  their  father  fell  prostrate  before  Joseph,  and  pour- 
ed out  their  confessions,  and  sought  his  protection.J 

Again  the  meekness,  gentleness  and  benevolence  of 'Jo- 
seph were  displayed  :  again  he  drew  a  veil  over  the  wicked- 

*  Gen.  41  t  Gen.  49  t  Gen.  50. 


1%  JOSEPH    AND    HIS    BRLTHKfctf 

ness  of  his  brethren,  ascribed  all  to  God,  and  taught  them  to 
notice  his  special  providence  in  their  deliverance  :  again,  he 
restored  them  to  his  favor,  and  lived  to  see  the  third  genera- 
tion of  Benjamin,  his  beloved  brother.  And  when  the  ful- 
ness of  time  was  come,  that  he  should  be  gathered  to  his  fath- 
ers, he  called  his  brethren  and  said — "  I  die,  and  God  will 
surely  visit  you  and  bring  you  out  of  this  land,  to  the  land 
which  he  sware  unto  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob."  And  when 
he  had  taken  their  oath,  that  they  would  carry  his  bones  with 
them,  he  fell  asleep. 


GHAP.     Ill 

From  the  death  of  Joseph  to  the  call  of  Moses — the  plagues  in 
Egypt,  the  departure  of  the  Hebrews,  under  Moses  and 
Aaron,  and  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh  at  the  Red  Sea. 

HERE  beging  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  family  of 
Abraham.  The  Patriarchs  are  gone  ;  Joseph  is  gone  ;  and 
their  descendants  are  left  unprotected  in  a  strange  land.  God 
continued  to  increase  arid  bless  them,  till  a  new  king  arose, 
who  knew  not  Joseph.  This  king,  unmindful  of  the  protec 
tion  the  kingdom  had  received  in  the  time  of  the  famine  ; 
and  fired  with  ambition,  began  to  exercise  despotic  power, 
and  oppress  the  descendants  of  Jacob. 

When  they  became  numerous,  fearing  that  his  oppression 
might  excite  them  to  revolt,  he  commanded  all  their  male 
children  to  be  destroyed  at  the  birth  ;  an  act  of  cruelty  and 
barbarity,  not  before  recorded  in  the  annals  of  man.  This 
order  was  executed,  except  in  the  instance  of  Moses,  whc 
was  hid  by  his  mother,  in  an  ark  of  bulrushes,  in  the  flags  o 
the  river,  where  he  was  preserved  by  the  special  providence 
of  God.  The  daughter  of  Pharaoh,  in  her  walk  discovered 
the  child,  and  sent  fora  nurse,  which,  in  the  same  provi- 
dence proved  to  be  the  child's  mother. 
-••  Nursed  under  the  guardian  care  of  the  princess,  Moses 
grew  into  life,  and  was  educated  in  all  the  wisdom  and  sci- 
ence of  the  Egyptians  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  was  instructed 
by  his  mother,  that  he  was  an  Hebrew,  of  the  family  of  th 


COMMISSION    OP    MOSES;  13 

bondmen  of  the  land.  When  he  became  a  man,  he  went  in- 
to the  field  to  visit  his  brethren  ;  and  seeing  an  Egyptian  of- 
fer to  one  ofthem  violence  and  wrong,  he  slew  him.  When 
this  act  was  known,  Moses  fled  into  Midian,  (a  land  on  the 
east  of  Egyp^,)  where  he  married  the  daughter  of  Jethro, 
priest  of  Midian,  and  kept  his  father's  flocks. 

Here  began  the  displays  of  the  majesty  of  Heaven  !  Here 
the  God  of  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob  began  to  have  com- 
passion on  the  distresses  of  his  afflicted  children  in  Egypt. 
Knowing  that  his  prediction  of  400  years  of  sojourning  were 
nearly  accomplished,  here  he  appeared  to  Moses  in  the  midst 
of  a  burning  bush  ;  and  called  and  commissioned  him,  from 
the  midst  of  that  flame,  which  concealed  the  God,  but  con- 
sumed not  the  bush. 

Here  he  charged  Moses  to  go  into  Egypt,  and  deliver  his 
people  :  and  permitted  him  to  take  with  him  Aaron  his  bro- 
ther. Here  he  confirmed  the  commission  of  Moses,  by  the 
special  miracle,  of  turning  his  rod  into  a  serpent  ;  and  pre- 
dicted the  manner  in  which  his  people  should  at  their  de- 
parture, spoil  the  Egyptians  of  their  treasures  of  gold  and 
silver,  as  some  compensation  for  their  painful  service. 

Empowered  by  this  high  commission,  and  the  miraculous 
displays  of  divine  power,  Moses  took  with  him  Aaron,  went 
down  into  Egypt,  and  stood  before  Pharaoh.  When  he  had 
opened  the  commission  of  heaven  to  the  king,  he  received 
from  Pharaoh  this  haughty  reply,  "  Who  is  the  Lord,  that  I 
should  obey  his  voice  and  let  Israel  go  ?  I  will  not  let  the 
people  go."  In  reply  to  the  insolence  of  this  haughty  king, 
Moses  cast  down  his  rod,  and  it  became  a  serpent. 

Then  Pharaoh,  to  try  the  strength  of  this  miracle,  sent  for 
his  magicians  and  sorcerers,  who  -cast  down  their  rods  and 
they  became  serpents  ;  but  the  serpent  of  Moses'  rod  swal- 
lowed up  all  theirs.  This  did  not  open  the  heart  of  the  king, 
but  confirmed  him  in  his  purpose  not  to  let  them  go.  Then 
God  came  out  in  judgment  against  Pharaoh,  by  the  ten  sue- 
c  ssive  plagues  which  he  caused  Moses  to  inflict  upon  the 
land  of  Egypt,  fire,  blood,  and  death.  (Ex.  8th  and  9th  ch.) 

In  this  awful  manner  the  judgments  of  heaven  were  dis- 
played, through  this  impious  king,  upon  his  guilty  land  :  to 
inspire  the  Hebrews  with  that  confidence  in  God,  and  in  Pvlo- 
ses  and  Aaron,  which  should  unite  them  in  their  departure. 
He  -.viused  Pharaoh,  also  to  double  the  tasks  of  the  Hebrews, 
tliat  their  oppressive  bondage  might  constrain  this  union,  and 

2 


14  DESTRUCTION    OP    PHARAOH. 

that  he  might  make  such  a  display  of  himself  and  his  judg- 
ments, as  should  lead  Pharaoh,  and  the  world,  to  acknowl- 
edge, that  "  the  Lord  God  omnipotent  reigneth." 

When  God  had  put  forth  his  hand  and  touched  all  the  first 
born  of  the  land  ;  when  every  house  was  filled  with  mourn- 
ing, lamentation  and  wo  :  then  the  hard  heart  of  this  haugh- 
ty king  was  subdued.  Then  the  prince  and  people  were 
ready  to  drive  out  the  Israelites.  Here  commenced  the  sol- 
emn festival  of  the  Jewish  passover,  in  commemoration  of 
their  wonderful  deliverance  ;  which  continues  to  this  day  in 
the  Jewish  Church.  Here  was  fulfilled  the  promise,  that 
they  should  be  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  the  Egyptians,  by 
their  jewels  of  gold  and  of  silver. 

When  all  things  were  now  accomplished,  this  mighty  host 
of  600,000  souls  assembled  under  Moses  and  Aaron,  and  took 
up  their  departure  for  the  land  of  their  fathers. — Here  again, 
was  a  display  of  the  selfishness  and  corruption  of  the  human 
heart.  Notwithstanding  all  the  manifestations  God  had  made 
of  himself  to  Pharaoh,  and  to  the  people,  in  the  miracles  he 
had  wrought,  and  the  judgments  he  had  inflicted  upon  them  : 
he  repented  that  he  had  let  the  people  go  :  raised  an  army, 
pursued  after  them  by  the  way  of  Pihahiroth,  and  overtook 
them  between  Migdol,  and  the  Red  Sea,  where  God  had  or 
dered  them  to  encamp. 

Here  was  the  closing  scene  !  the  waters  of  the  sea,  opened 
to  the  right  hand,  and  to  the  left,  by  the  mighty  power  of  the 
Most  High  ;  and  Moses  led  the  host  of  Israel  through  on  dry 
land.  Pharaoh  attempted  to  pursue,  when  the  waters  return 
ed  by  the  same  Almighty  power,  with  which  they  were  roll- 
ed bnck  :  and  this  daring,  hardened,  impious  king,  with  all 
his  mighty  army,  were  swallowed  up  and  lost  in  the  depths  of 
the  sea.  At  the  same  time,  Moses  assembled  the  host  of 
Israel,  on  the  bunks  of  the  sea,  where  they  united  in  a  song 
of  praise  to  God  their  deliverer.* 


CHAP.     IV. 

From  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  to  the  giving  of  the  Moral 
Law  at  Mount  Sinai" — the  death  of  Moses  and  Aaron — the 

*  Ex.  *v. 


MORAL    LAW.  15 

possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  under  Joshua — and  the 
change  of  government  under  their  kings. 

HERE  let  us  reflect,  upon  the  awful,  sublime,  and  interest- 
ing scenes  through  which  we  have  passed,  from  the  creation 
to  the  flood  ;  from  the  flood  to  the  call  of  Abraham  ;  and 
from  that  call  to  the  wonderful  displays  of  God  in  Egypt, 
and  the  Red  Sea,  and  learn  this  lesson  :  that  when  God  calls 
sinners  to  repentance,  by  his  counsels,  warnings,  invitations 
and  chastenings  ;  and  they,  like  Pharaoh,  continue  obstinate 
and  impenitent  ;  he  will  come  out  against  them  in  his  wr;:th, 
and  seal  up  their  doom  with  his  eternal  judgments.  The 
lesson  before  us  is  a  striking  display  of  this  solemn  truth. 

We  will  now  pass  over  the  several  movements  of  the  camp 
of  Israel,  until  they  pitch  before  Sinai.  Here  again,  the 
majesty  of  heaven  was  displayed  in  the  thunders  of  Sinai. 
But  notwithstanding  the  mountain  was  on  fire  from  the  pre- 
sence of  God,  when  he  called  Moses,  and  conversed  with 
him  forty  days  :  notwithstanding  he  had  led  their  whole 
inarch,  by  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day,  and  of  fire  by  night :  yet 
even  here,  under  the  awful  solemnities  of  Sinai,  they  caused 
Aaron  to  make  a  golden  calf,  (one  of  the  gods  of  Egypt)  of 
the  same  ear-rings  which  they  had  borrowed  of  their  neigh- 
Jw>r*  :  and  uftcr  the  custom  of  the  Egyptians,  worshipped  it, 
in  a  riotous,  tumultuous  manner. 

This  was  a  scene  which  tried  the  patience  of  Moses.  Al- 
though he  was  the  meekest  of  men,  at  the  sight  of  this  scene, 
he  threw  down  the  two  tables  of  stone,  on  which  were  in- 
scribed by  the  finger  of  God,  the  Moral  Law  ;  and  brake 
them  in  pieces.  He  next  dissolved  the  golden  calf,  compel- 
led its  worshippers  to  drink  it,  and  caused  3000  idolaters  to 
be  slain.  He  again,  by  the  divine  command  returned  into  the 
mount,  where  he  received  two  other  tables  of  stone  as  be>- 
fore  ;  which  are  the  ten  commandments  (called  the  moral 
law)  continued  in  the  Jewish  church,  and  handed  down  to  us. 

We  will  pass  over  the  mercies  and  judgments  of  God  to 
this  people,  in  their  several  journeyings  in  the  wilderness^ 
until  we  come  to  the  waters  of  Meribah.  Here  the  murmur- 
ings  and  discontent  of  this  obstinate,  ungrateful  people,  again 
tired  the  patience  of  Moses,  and  he  gave  that  offence  to  God, 
which  deprived  him  and  Aaron  of  the  enjoyment  of  the  pro- 
mised land.  Soon  after  the  offence  ot  Meribah,  God  called 
to  seal  up  his  tost  account.  After  Moses  had  led  the 


1(3  CAPTFRB    OP   JERICHO. 

people  through  the  wilderness,  God  directed  him  to  appoint 
Joshua  his  successor,  and  go  up  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  where 
he  could  view  the  promised  land,  tnd  there  die. 

l^ull  of  instruction  is  the  sacred  book  of  God.  If  Moses, 
the  favoured  of  heaven,  was  denounced  and  cut  off  for  one 
unguarded  offence,  to  what  punishment  does  the  whole  fami- 
ly of  man  stand  exposed  every  moment,  from  the  offended 
in  ijftsty  of  heaven  !  Learn  also,  that  to  whom  much  is  given, 
of  him  much  will  be  required  ;  and  that  every  man  must 
be  accountable  for  what  he  hath,  and  not  for  what  he  hath 
aot. 

We  will  now  leave  Moses  entombed  on  mount  Nebo,  and 
follow  the  camp  of  Israel,  under  Joshua,  to  the  river  Jordan, 
Here  Jehovah  again  displayed  his  mighty  power,  the  river 
opened,  as  at  the  Red  Sea,  and  gave  them  passage.  The 
first  city  that  presented  itself,  was  Jericho  ;  strongly  walled 
and  fortified.  This  intimidated  the  murmuring,  complaining, 
faithless  multitude.  And  when  they  saw  the  hardy,  warlike, 
gothic  race  of  men  which  dwelt  in  the  land,  their  hearts  sunk 
within  them,  and  they  were  ready  to  yield  to  fear.  Again 
the  hand  of  the  Most  High  was  stretched  forth  for  their  relief. 
By  the  special  command  of  God,  the  walls  of  Jericho  fell 
down  at  the  blowing  of  rams'  horns,  by  the  priests,  and  the 
city  fsli  mi  easy  cGmjuest  to  Joshua.  This  eyc^t  iiinimWt 
the  host  of  Israel  with  confidence  ;  and  their  enemies  in, 
their  turn  were  depressed,  and  became  an  easy  prey. 

Here  end  the  400  years  sojourning,  predicted  by  Abraham, 
and  the  40  years  wandering  in  the  desert.  Again,  the  fami- 
ly of  Jacob  (or  Israel)  are  restored  to  the  promised  land,  a 
Jand  flowing  with  milk  and  honey  ;  abounding  with  every 
thing  delightful  to  the  eye,  and  pleasing  to  the  taste. 

It  must  not  be  understood  th:it  the  whole  family  of  Jacob, 
which  came  out  of  Egypt,  returned' to  this  land  of  promise. 
Ail  who  were  over  twenty  years  of  age  when  they  came  out, 
were  not  permitted  to  carry  with  them,  the  corrupt  and 
idolatrous  practices  of  Egypt,  (in  which  they  had  been 
eduacted,)  into  the  land  of  Canaan.  These  all* died  in  the 
wilderness  ;  but  the  youth,  together  with  such  as  were  born 
in  the  wilderness,  were  trained  up,  by  the  special  ^ispl-iy?  of 
God's  providence  and  goodness,  to  enjoy  the  promised  in- 
herit'ince. 

When  these  had  taken  possession  of  the  country,  under 
Joshua,  they  divided  up  the  land  by  tribes,  side  by  side,  as 


RECAPITULATION.  i'7 

the  United  States  are  divided  :  established  their  government, 
whkh  was  a  pure  Theocracy  ;  the  moral  law,  together  with 
their  ritual,  formed  their  constitution,  and  God  was  their 
head.  Under  this  form  of  government,  they  continued  350 
years  ;  and  had  they  been  content  with  their  condition,  they 
might  have  been  the  happiest  people  on  earth. 

But  they,  like  Jeshurun,  waxed  fat  and  kicked  ;.  the  voice 
of  murmur  and  discontent,  continued  to  rise  up  to  heaven 
against  them;  they  lusted  after  the  idols  and  corruptions,  of 
the  neighbouring  nations  ;  and  had  not  the  same  power, 
which  brought  them  into  the  land,  been  exerted  in  protecting 
them  from  the  corruptions  of  their  own  hearts,  and  the  sword 
of  their  enemies,  they  would  soon  have  f  illen  a  prey  to  them, 
and  returned  back  to  the  idolatry  of  the  Chaldeans,  their 
fathers.  The  promises  of  God  are  sure  ;  fixed  and  unalter- 
able are  his  purposes.  Although  he  sometimes  gives  up  his 
people  to  the  indulgence  of  their  evil  propensities  ;  he  al- 
ways makes  their  trials  subservient  to  his  own  glory,  and 
their  best  good-  . 


REMARKS. 

WE  have  now  accompanied  Abraham  and  his  posterity, 
from  Chaldea  to  Canaan,  to  Egypt,  through  their  sufferings, 
their  deliverance,  their  journeyings  in  the  wilderness,  and 
their  restoration  -to  the  land  which  God  sware  unto  Abraham, 
to  give  to  him  and  his,  for  a  possession-,  when  as  yet  he  had 
no  child.  We  have,  through  the  instrumentality  of  this  won- 
derful family,  witnessed  the  manifestation  of  the  knowl^ltrc 
and  character  of  the  only  true  God,  in  the  miraculous  birth  of 
Isaac,  in  the  faith  of  Abraham  at  the  sacrifice,  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  prophecy  upon  Ishmael,  in  the  narrative 
of  Joseph,  in  the  displays  of  God  to  Moses,  in  the  plagues  of 
Egypt,  in  the  deliverance  of  the  Hebrews  at  the  Red  Sea, 
and  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh  ;  in  the  journeyings  of  000,000 
souls  in  a  barren  uncultivated  desert,  fed  by  the  immediate 
hand  of  God,  with  quails  and  manna  from  heaven  ;  and  with 
water  in  the  same  miraculous  manner,  from  the  dry  and 
flinty  rock. 

We  have  also  witnessed  the  displays  of  the  majesty  of  Je- 
hovah, io  giving  the  Moral  Law  at  Mount  Sinai,  in  forming 

2* 


18  DEFECTION  OF  THE  TWELVE  TRIBES. 

his  true  church  with  their  service  ;  together  with  the  judges 
of  Israel,  upon  the  basis  of  this  law  ;  and  finally,  his  leading 
the  young  stuck,  (after  destroying  all  the  old  idolaters  in  the 
wilderness,)  into  the  land  which  he  had  promised  to  their 
fathers,  and  in  planting  that  church  which  he  had  not  only 
formed,  and  nursed,  by  the  special  displays  of  his  almighty 
power  and  wisdom,  by  so  many  miracles,  but  which  he  de- 
lighted to  honor  with  his  special  presence,  guidance,  and  di- 
rection, and  to  preside  over  as  its  head,  deliverer,  and  pro- 
tector. "I  am  the  Lord  your  God,  who  hath  brought  you 
out  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  out  of  the  house  of  bondage,  to 
give  unto  you  this  goodly  land,  which  I  sware  unto  your  fath- 
ers, to  Abraham,  Isaac  and  Jacob,  and  to  their  seed  after 
them  ;  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey." 

Here  in  the  midst  of  this  renewed  paradise  of  blessings, 
we  are  called  to  witness  the  high  and  distinguished  privile- 
ges of  that  church  from  whence  issued  the  accomplishment  of 
all  the  promises  to  f  illen  and  ruined  man. 

The  scenes  of  Eden  were  here  renewed,  every  thing  plea- 
sing to  the  eye,  and  delightful  to  the  taste,  in  the  richest  pro- 
fusion, gladdened  the  hearts  of  this  favored  church  ;  the 
presence  and  counsels  of  God  directed  their  steps,  the  wis- 
dora  of  God  gave  them  understanding,  and  from  his  special 
bounty  their  cup  overflowed  with  blessings;  all  but  Eden's 
innocence  was  here. 

But  here  too  we  are  called  to  witness  again  the  depravity 
of  the  heart  of  man,  and  say,  "  it  is  desperately  wicked,  who 
can  know  it ;"  even  here  this  chosen  church,  this  favored  of 
heaven,  amidst  the  satiety  of  enjoyment,  renounced  their 
God,  and  demanded  a  king,  like  the  nations  of  the  earth  ;  and 
Go  I  loft  them  to  the  lusts  of  their  hearts,  and  in  his  wrath 
gave  them  a  king. 

This  demand  of  God  that  he  should  give  them  a  king,  was 
a  renunciation  of  God  their  king,  and  like  the  apostacy  of  par- 
adise, laid  the  foundation  for  all  their  sufferings,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  all  their  subsequent  calamities.* 

They,  like  the  first  stock  in  paradise,  fell,  and  entailed 
upon  themselves  and  their  posterity,  many  calamities,  dis- 
tresses and  judgments,  and  stand  as  a  living  monument  to  all 
succeeding  generations  ;  with  this  awful  memento.  "  Let 
him  that  standeth  take  heed  lest  he  fall." 

*  See  the  chronicles  of  their  kings 


DAVID   AND   90JLOMON.  19 

CHAP.  V, 

Change  of  Jewish  Theocracy  to  the  government  of  their  Kings — 
Dispersion  of  the  Ten  Tribes  by  Psalmanazer — Remarks. 

WHEN  the  people  of  God  were  weary  of  his  government, 
and  asked-aking,  He  granted  their  request,  and  gave  them  a 
king  in  his  wrath.  Samuel  the  prophet,  by  divine  permis- 
sion, anointed  Saul  as  their  first  king  ;  but  God  for  his  diso- 
bedience rejected  him,  and  by  the  special  display  of  his  pow- 
er, appointed  David  the  shepherd  king,  from  which  stock 
sprang  the  Messiah. 

God  adapts  all  his  means  to  their  special  ends.  By  the 
sword  of  David,  He  established  the  defence  and  security  of 
his  people.  From  him  sprang  Solomon,  who  in  his  wisdom 
erected  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  established  the  splendor  of 
the  temple  worship,  adorned  and  beautified  the  city,  and  pla- 
ced the  nation  on  the  summit  of  renown,  The  lustre  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  shone  conspicuous  in  his  reign,  throughout 
the  world. 

When  this  illustrious  king  was  called  to  sleep  with  his  fath- 
ers, and  his  son  Rehoboam  had  succeeded  him,  he  by  one 
unguarded  act,  severed  the  nation,  ten  tribes  against  two. 
The  exclamation  of  Jeroboam,  "  To  your  tents,  O  Israel," 
established  Samaria,  as  the  capital  of  the  ten  tribes,  with 
Jeroboam  for  their  king  ;  in  opposition  to  Jerusalem,  and  the 
two  tribes  under  Rehoboam.  TLe  divided  strength  of  a 
family  or  nation,  is  a  sure  pledge  of  their  weakness,  to  the 
fir^t  enemy  who  may  be  disposed  to  invade  them. 

The  truth  of  the  remark  was  soon  verified  in  this  divided, 
f:  lien  family.  When  the  ten  tribes  had  set  up  the  calves  of 
D  n  and  Bethel,  and  proclaimed  "  these  be  thy  Gods,  O  Is- 
rael"— then  the  God  of  their  fathers  came  out  in  judgment 
agvinst  them  ;  and  sent  Psalmanazer  king  of  Assyria,  with 
a  mighty  army  ;  who  overran  their  country,  pillaged  and 
razed  their  cities,  and  carried  them  all  away  captive  to 
ISineveh,  where  they  were  swallowed  up,  and  their  name 
was  blotted  out  from  the  list  of  nations. 

Moses  having  foreseen,  by  the  inspiration  of  God,  the  de- 
struction that  should  come  upon  his  people,  gave  them  sea- 
sonable warning.*  In  this  admonition,  the  sins  which  caus- 
ed this  calamity,  together  with  their  dispersion,  are  clearly 

11  Deut.  iv.  28, 


20  THE   TEN   TRIBES. 

pointed  out ;  and  as  the  same  chapter,  also  promises  their 
restoration  in  the  Litter  days  ;  great  search  has  been  made 
for  them,  throughout  the  habitable  globe,  bnt  no  traces  of 
them  have  yet  been  found. 

By  some,  it  has  been  conjectured,  that  they  passed  in  a 
body,  through  the  wilds  of  Asia,  crossed  Beering's  Straits, 
on  to  the  continent  of  America,  and  are  to  be  found  in  our 
western  Indians.  The  plausible  grounds  for  this  conjecture 
are,  the  similarity  in  their  notions  of  the  Supreme  Being, 
their  guttural  language,  together  with  some  manners  and  cus- 
toms, and  their  divisions  into  tribes. 

Dr.  Buchanan,  in  his  Asiatic  Researches,  points  out  some 
features  in  the  Affghans  in  Asia,  together  with  reports  of  tra- 
dition, that  they  are  descendants  of  the  ten  tribes  ;  but  he 
does  not  appear  to  attach  much  confidence  to  the  conjecture. 
All  the  prophets  are  agreed  in  the  restoration  of  this  branch 
©f  the  fimily  of  Israel,  to  the  land  of  their  fathers,  in  the 
fcitter  days.  God  will  assuredly  accomplish  his  promise  ; 
but  when,  and  in  what  manner,  time  alone  can  unfold. 
•*  Blessed  is  he  thatwaiteth,  andcometh  to,  the  one  thousand 
three  hundred  and  thirty-five  days."  Dan.  xii.  12. 

The  tribe  of  Judah,  together  with  the  small  remains  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  who  had  escaped  the  punishment  of  the 
sword,  which  God  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  hands  of  their 
brethren,  for  their  impiety  and  barbarity ;  continued  the 
temple  worship  at  Jerusalem,  under  a  succession  of  kings, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ;  then  they  filled  up  the  measure 
»f  their  iniquities,  by  violating  the  sabbath  and  the  sanctuary. 


1HE    FALL    OP    NINEV8».  21 

CHAP.    VI. 

Destruction  of  Nineveh — Conquest  of  Nebuchadnezzar — Siege 
QJ  Tyre — Conquest  of  Egypt — Captivity  of  the  two  tribes — 
Displays  of  God  in  Babylon. 

ABOUT  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  the  conquest  and 
captivity  of  the  ten  tribes,  by  Psalmanazer  king  of  Nineveh  ; 
God  raised  up  the  Chaldeans,  together  with  the  Medes,  (a 
nation  on  the  east  of  Babylon,  and  not  far  remote,)  to  chas- 
tise the  city  of  Nineveh  for  her  idolatry,  and  cruelty  to  his 
people.  These  mighty  nations  overran  their  kingdom,  L;id 
waste  their  country,  took  the  city  of  Nineveh,  razed  it  to  its 
foundation  ;  so  that  her  place  is  not  to  be  found,  according 
to  the  predictions  of  Nahum. 

Thus  fell  great  Nineveh,  the  pride  of  the  east  and  the 
conqueror  of  the  west,  whose  sword  had  drenched  in  blood 
the  cities  of  Palestine,  and  ruined  the  ten  tribes  of  the  fami- 
ly of  Israel. 

This  conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Assyria,  raised  Babylon, 
and  opened  the  way  for  all  her  future  greatness.  She  ex- 
tended her  arms  into  the  east,  and  harrassed  the  Medes  and 
Persians  with  distressing  wars.  She  carried  her  arms  into 
the  west  under  l^euMciJHniHJzxHr,  wl"n»  OVii-i-rin  all  Asia  Minor, 
entered  Phenecin,  and  laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Tyre.  This 
city  then  stood  upon  the  main  land,  was  the  great  mart  of 
Asia  with  the  west,  and  the  richest  city  in  the  world.  The 
siege  of  Tyre  made  a  distinguished  figure  in  this  expedition, 
and  the  conquest  of  this  cost  Nebuchadnezzar  a  siege  of 
two  years.  The  distresses  of  this  siege  were  such  as  had 
never  been  experienced  ;  and  the  Tyrians,  by  their  firm  and 
desperate  resistance,  caused  the  prediction  of  the  prophet 
Ezekiel  to  be  fully  verified,  "  every  head  shall  be  bald,  and 
every  shoulder  pealed." — Chap.  xxix.  18,  19. 

When  the  Tyrians  found  all  further  resistance  would  be 
ineffectual,  they  removed  their  families  and  effects  on  to  an 
island,  about  three  fourths  of  a  mile  from  their  city  ;  here,  by 
the  assistance  of  their  shig£,  they  protected  and  secured  their 
wealth  against  all  further  attempts  from  the  conqueror,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  that  city,  which  became  so  distinguish- 
ed in  the  siege  of  Alexander,  under  the  name  of  modern  Tyre. 
Nebuchadnezzar  carried  his  arms  into  Egypt,  which  foil 
an  easy  prey  to  the  conqueror  j  with  the  spoils  of  Egypt  he 


22  DISPLAYS    OF    GOD. 

enriched  his  army,  and  they  rioted  in  the  luxaries  of  Egypt, 
as  a  reward  for  their  services  at  the  siege  of  Tyre. 

From  Egypt,  the  conqueror  carried  his  arms  into  Pales- 
tine, overran  the  country,  laid  waste  the  cities,  and  besieged 
Jerusalem.  The  distresses  of  this  siege  are  as  memorable 
as  the  siege  of  Tyre  ;  but  the  wretchedness  of  the  Jews, 
surpassed  all  description.  Wasted  by  the  sword,  famine  and 
pestilence,  those  terrible  judgments  of  heaven,  they  fell  a 
prey  to  the  conqueror,  who  gave  their  city  up  to  pillage, 
carried  the  remnant  of  the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin* 
away  to  Babylon,  with  the  spoils  of  their  city  and  temple, 
and  swept  their  country  with  the  besom  of  destruction.* 

When  Nebuchadnezzar  had  settled  the  conquest  of  the  west, 
he  returned  to  Babylon  with  the  spoils  of  Asia  Minor,  Phe- 
m'cia,  Egypt,  Syria  and  Palestine,  together  with  the  remnant 
of  the  family  of  Israel ;  Zedekiah  their  king  graced  his 
train. 

With  the  spoils  of  the  west,  Nebuchadnezzar  greatly  en- 
riched and  beautified  his  favorite  city,  Babylon  ;  then  the 
scourge  of  the  nations,  and  mistress  of  the  earth,  and  rioted 
in  the  fruits  of  his  conquests  ;  here  the  bondage  of  Egypt 
was  again  renewed,  and  the  captive  sons  of  Israel  became 
the  servants  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  to  convert  the  spoils  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  citias  of  the  we?*,  int^  the  splendor  and 
magnificence  of  Babylon  ;  but  the  most  dark  and  mysterious 
ways  of  God,  are  often  the  means  of  illustrating  the  wisdom-, 
goodness  and  majesty  of  his  character. 

When  Nebuchadnezzar  had  disposed  of  his  spoils,  and 
trophies,  he  caused  seven  of  the  princes  of  Judah  to  be  se- 
lected, educated,  and  trained  for  the  special  service  of  his 
court,  which  opened  the  way  for  such  a  display  of  the  pow- 
er and  majesty  of  God,  by  a  succession  of  dreams,  visions, 
miracles,  judgments,  and  prophecies,  as  astonished  the  king, 
the  nation,  and  the  world  ;  unfolded  a  succession  of  events 
which  have  employed  the  pens  of  all  historians  from  that  day 
to  this,  and  will  continue  to  employ  them,  to  the  great  con- 
summation of  all  things. 

That  same  family,  who  had  been  the  instruments  of  the 
displays  of  the  character  of  God  in  Egypt,  in  the  wilderaess? 

| 

*  Jer.  xxxis. 


PTJNrSHMENT   OP    NEBUCHADNEZZAR.  23 

and  in  Palestine,  were  now  become  the  instruments  to  dis- 
play the  character  of  the  one  true  God,  to  that  same  idola- 
trous nation  from  whence  he  had  called  Abraham,  more  than 
one  thousand  years  before.  The  wonderfisl  displays  of  this 
Almighty  power  are  faithfully  recorded  in  the  whole  book  of 
the  great  prophet  Daniel,  for  the  instruction  and  correction 
of  a  profligate  world. 

In  the  midst  of  these  scenes,  God  accomplished  upon  Ne- 
buchadnezzar the  vision  of  the  tree,  (see  Dan.  iv.  4,  18,)  and 
when  in  the  pride  of  his  heart  he  was  exulting  in  the  magni- 
ficence of  his  favorite  city,  saying,  "  Is  not  great  Babylon 
which  I  have  built,  for  the  honor  of  my  majesty,  and  the 
glory  of  my  kingdom,5'  the  finger  of  God  touched  him,  and 
he  was  deprived  of  his  reason,  driven  from  his  kingdom, 
made  to  take  up  his  abode  with  the  beasts  of  the  field,  and  did 
eat  grass  with  the  ox  seven  years. 

At  the  expiration  of  seven  years  God  restored  Nebuchad- 
nezzar to  his  understanding  and  his  kingdom,  and  caused  the 
humiliation  of  the  king  to  praise  him.  Instead  of  saying, 
"  Is  not  this  great  Babylon  which  I  have  built  for  the  honor 
of  my  majesty,"  he  lifted  up  his  eyes  to  heaven,  and  blessed 
'the  most  high  God  ;  and  praised  and  honored  him  that  liveth 
for  ever  aud  ever,  adding,  "  none  can  stay  his  hand,  neither 
may  any  say  unto  him  what  doest  thou." 

In  the  various  displays  of  his  power  in  the  family  of  Abra- 
ham, God  had  manifested  to  the  world,  why  he  called  Abra- 
ham out  of  the  land  of  Chaldea,  into  the  wiiderness  of  Ca- 
naan, inflicted  on  his  posterity  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  and 
led  them  through  their  forty  years  journeyings  in  the  wilder- 
ness ;  it  was  to  effect  the  establishment  of  his  church  in  the 
land  of  their  fathers. 

By  these  astonishing  displays  of  his  power,  he  made  it 
manifest  to  the  world,  why  he  blotted  out  the  ten  tribes  from 
the  list  of  nations,  and  carried  away  the  remnant  of  the  two 
tribes  to  Babylon,  even  that  he  might  root  out  the  idolatry  of 
his  church,  and  by  his  chastisements,  and  corrections,  lead 
them  back  to  himself,  and  at  the  same  time,  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  his  own  children,  magnify  his  name  amongst 
the  same  idolatrous  nations,  from  whence  he  had  called 
Abraham  ;  extort  this  confession  from  Nebuchadnezzar, 
v  that  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  is  the  only  true  God  ;"  and 
this  decree  of  the  king,  "  that  all  nation*  and  languages  un- 


24  CONQUEST  OP  CYRUS, 

der  the  whole  heaven,  should  honour  the  God  of  Daniel,  and 
all  people  should  serve  hln." 

Thus  having  accomplished  his  threefold  purpose  of  bring- 
ing i  his  church  by  his  corrections,  to  humility  and  obedi- 
ence ;  magnifying  his  mftneand  his  glory  to  Nebuchadnezzar 
and  his  kingdom,  leaving  on  record  these  wonderful  displays 
for  the  instruction  of  the  world  to  the  latest  generations  ; 
God  prepared  the  way  for  the  restoration  of  his  people,  and 
the  rebuilding  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem.* 


CHAP.  VII. 

Conquest  of  Cyrus — -fall  of  Babylon — restoration  of  the 
—expedition  of  Darius — of  Xerxes — pass  of  Thermopylae. 

DURING  the  displays  of  divine  power  in  Babylon,  Nebu- 
chadnezzar died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  whose 
reign  was  short,  and  next  by  his  grandson  Belshazzar.  Be- 
tween him  and  Cyaxares  king  of  the  Medes,  a  war  sprang  up, 
in  which  Cyrus,  king  of  the  Persians,  was  engaged  as  an 
ally  :  a  battle  was  soon  fought,  in  which  the  Babylonians 
were  defeated,  put  to  flight  with  great  slaughter,  and  compel- 
led to  sue  for  peace. 

This  Cyaxares  was  about  to  grant,  when  Cyrus  objected, 
urging  that  now  was  the  favourable  opportunity  to  punish  the 
Babylonians  for  their  tyranny  and  cruelty ;  and  that  if  the 
king  would  entrust  him  with  the  command  of  his  army,  he 
would  march  to  Babylon,  and  chastise  that  haughty  city. 
Cyaxares,  admiring  the  spirit  of  this  young  hero,  then  twen- 
ty-five years  of  age,  yielded  to  his  request,  and  returned  t« 
his  court  in  Media. 

Cyrus,  who  was  called  by  name  by  the  prophet  Isniah, 
two  hundred  years  before  he  was  born,  when  that  prophet 
predicted  the  destruction  of  Babylon,  was  now  about  to  en- 
ter upon  bis  commission,  and  execute  the  decrees  of  heav- 
en against  that  city,  who  had  enriched  herself  with  the 
spoils  of  nations,  who  said  in  her  heart,  "  I  sit  a  queen,  I  am 
no  widow,  I  shall  see  no  sorrow,"  and  knew  not  thejudg- 

*  Tsriah  43,  44,  45.    Jer.  23.    Book  &i  Ezra. 

*  Isaiah  45  and  46. 


PALL    OP    BABYLON.  25 

ments  God  had  in  store  for  her,  and  which  he  had  denounced 
against  her  ;  and  who,  to  fill  up  the  measure  of  her  iniquities, 
then  held  the  two  tribes  of  Israel  in  bondage. 

Thus  commissioned  by  God,  and  armed  by  his  authority, 
Cyrus  entered  upon  the  plains  of  Shinar,  and  laid  siege  to 
Babylon.     The  Babylonians,  unable  to  keep  the  fiel* 
fled,  and  taken  refuge  within  their  walls,  where  they  felt 
themselves  secure,  with  astore  of  provision  fortwenty  years. 

Cyrus  invested  the  city  so  closely,  that  all  communication 
from  without  was  cut  off  ;  he  next  prepared  a  canal,  by  which 
he  could  turn  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates,  into  the  Tigris, 
and  thereby  lay  bare  the  channel  of  the  river.  During  these 
operations,  Belshazzar  the  king  was  rioting  in  his  palace, 
with  his  wives,  his  concubines,  and  all  his  court,  and  drinking 
wine  with  impious  profanation,  out  of  the  sacred  vessels, 
his  grandfather  Nebuchadnezzar  had  brought  from  the  holy 
temple  of  Jerusalem. 

A  mante  hand  appeared,  and  wrote  upon  the  wall,  over 
against  the  king,  these  words  :  mene,  tekel,  upharsin  ;  the 
conscience  of  the  king  upbraided  him,  and  his  knees  Fmote 
together  with  fear.  Daniel  was  called,  who  thus  interpreted 
the  writing  ;  "  Thy  days  are  numbered  and  finished,  thy 
kingdom  is  divided,  and  given  to  the  Medes  and  Persians." 

The  same  night,  amidst  this  impious  festivity,  the  strata- 
gem of  the  canal  was  executed  ;  the  river  was  drained,  and 
Cyrus  entered  the  city  by  an  unguarded  gate,  on  the  side  c^ 
the  river,  overturned  all  in  his  way,  entered  the  palace,  put 
the  king  and  all  his  court  to  the  sword,  and  made  himself 
master  of  Babylon. 

Thus  fell  great  Babylon,  the  pride  and  ornament  of  the 
Chaldean  monarchy,  the  mistress  of  the  world,  and  the  head 
of  gold  in  the  vision  of  Nebuchadnezzar  ;  and  thus  the  em- 
pire of  Media  was  established  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Chalde- 
an Monarchy. 

Cyaxares,  then  an  old  man,  and  uncle  to  Cyrus,  upon  the 
side  of  his  mother,  soon  died,  and  left  the  crown  of  Media 
to  Cyrus,  as  the  rightful  heir  ;  thus  uniting  the  three  kingdoms 
of  Chaldea,  Media  and  Persia,  in  one,  with  Cyrus  foritshead. 

The  first  act  of  importance  recorded  of  Cyrus,  was  his  de- 
cree for  the  deliverance,  and  restoration  of  the  Jews,  to  the 
land  of  their  fathers.  This  decree  was  accomplished,  Tvith 
the  necessary  supplies  for  carrying  it  into  execution  ;  the 
seventy  years  captivity  was  closed,  and  the  remnant  of  the 
3 


Z6  EXPEDITION    OF    DARIUS. 

two  tribes  was  restored  to  Jerusalem,  to  rebuild  their  city 
arid  temple  under  Zerubabel,  and  Ezra.  See  Ezra  1st  chap- 
ter. 

Thus  we  are  led  again  to  see  with  what  precision  the  de- 
crees of  the  Most  high  are  accomplished,  "  that  he  setteth 
up  kings,  and  putteth  down  kings,  and  none  can  deliver  out 
of  his  hand." 

Cyrus,  thus  seated  upon  the  throne  of  the  Medo  Persian 
empire,  (which  became  the  breast  and  arms  of  silver  in  the 
image  of  Nebuchadnezzar,)  was  now  the  greatest  monarch 
the  world  had  ever  known  ;  he  united  the  three  kingdoms  by 
wise  and  energetic  laws,  ruled  in  wisdom,  laid  the  founda-v 
tions  of  that  empire  which  became  so  conspicuous  in  suc- 
ceeding reigns,  and  died  529  years  before  Christ. 

We  will  pass  over  the  successive  reigns  as  uninteresting, 
until  we  come  to  the  reign  of  Darius,  father  of  Xerxes  ;  he 
was  fired  with  the  ambition  of  his  ancestors,  raised  a  pow- 
erful army,  marched  into  the  west,  crossed  the  Hfllespont, 
marched  through  Thrace,  crossed  the  Danube,  and  com- 
menced operations  against  the  ancient  Scythians  of  Europe. 
These  hardy  sons  of  the  forest,  drew  him  into  their  wilds, 
by  flying  before  him,  laid  waste  their  country,  and  harassed 
him  in  his  march,  until  he  despaired  of  success,  and  at- 
tempted to  retire  from  the  war  ;  the  barbarians  had  suc- 
ceeded in  their  stratagem,  they  fell  upon  him  with  great  fu- 
ry, routed,  dispersed  and  destroyed  his  army,  and  Darius  re- 
turned a  fugitive  into  Persia,  where  he  died  soon  after,  leav- 
ing his  throne  to  his  son  Xerxes.  He  was  the  prince  of  Per- 
sia described  in  Daniel's  scriptures  of  truth,  "  as  being  far 
richer  than  all  others,  who  should  stir  up  all  against  the 
realm  of  Grecia."  Chap.  xi.  2. 

Xerxes  assembled  a  powerful  army,  amounting  to  five 
million  souls,  (according  to  Mr.  Rollin,)  marched  into  the 
west,  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  invaded  the  states  of 
Greece,  then  lying  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Europe,  wrhere 
Turkey  in  Europe  now  is.* 

Greece  was  then  in  its  infancy,  divided  into  a  number  of 
small  states,  hordes,  or  clans,  independent  of  each  other, 
speaking  the  same  language  under  a  variety  of  dialects  ; 
without  union,  without  money,  without  allies,  and  unpre- 
pared, even  for  any  invasion. 

*  Appendix,  M 


EXPEDITION    OF    XERXES.  27 

When  Xerxes  appeared  on  their  borders  with  his  immense 
host,  they  began  to  confederate  for  common  safety.  In  this, 
their  first  effort  for  defence,  they  were  near  being  ruined  in 
the  qhoice  of  a  general  ;  such  was  the  jealousy  of  these  rival 
sons  of  liberty.  When  they  were  united  in  this,  they  were 
equally  ditressed  in  the  choice  of  a  commander  for  their 
fleet ;  when  they  were  agreed  on  this  also,  their  numbers 
were  so  small  as  not  to  be  put  in  competition  with  the  whole 
eastern  world,  which  was  assembled  against  them. 

The  powerful  force  of  the  king,  and  the  defenceless  situa- 
tion of  Greece,  inspired  him  with  the  highest  confidence  of 
success,  he  constructed  abridge  of  boats,  passed  the  Helles- 
pont, entered  upon  the  plains  of  Greece,  and  penetrated  into 
the  heart  of  their  country,  without  opposition,  until  he  ap- 
proached the  pass  of  Thermopylae  ;  here  he  was  met  by  Le- 
onidas,  with  three  hundred  Spartans,  who  checked  his  pro- 
gress, and  held  at  bay  the  whole  force  of  Persia. 

When  Leonidas  had  learnt  that  Xerxes  was  about  to  force 
his  passage  through  the  by-roads  of  the  mountain,  by  the 
aid  ofa  treacherous  Greek,  and  thus  enclose  his  little  band, 
he  assembled  his  three  hundred  Spartans,  put  himself  at  their 
head,  marched  through  the  defile,  in  dead  of  night,  and,  with 
sword  in  hand,  rushed  like  a  torrent  upon  the  Persian  camp, 
overturning  all  in  his  course,  until  he  had  nearly  reached 
the  tent  of  the  king;  here,  amidst  the  terrible  conflict  of  car- 
nage nnd  of  death,  they  all  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  swords  of  the 
Persians,  except  one,  who  was  ever  after  treated  by  his 
countrymen  as  a  fugitive,  and  vagabond,  because  he  prefer- 
red life  to  dory. 

This  daring  and  heroic  assault,  so  intimidated  the  king, 
that  he  no  longer  considered  himself  safe  in  the  midst  of  his 
legions,  but  betook  himself  to  his  fleet,  as  a  place  of  more 
safety,  and  where  he  hop^d  much  from  a  naval  victory,  be- 
cause it  was  superior  to  the  Grecian,  and  left  the  command 
of  his  army  with  Mardonius,  his  principal  general.  Here  the 
Greeks  were  ready  to  meet  his  wishes.  The  fleets  met  near 
Salamin,  an  action  was  fought,  and  a  victory  obtained,  which 
ruined  the  Persian  fleet.  Xerxes  escaped,  and  fled  into 
Persia,  and  his  Queen,  by  a  most  masterly  stratagem  and  ad- 
dress, secured  her  ship,  and  flight,  and  followed  the  king. 
They  both  returned  safe  to  Babylon. 

Mardonius,  with  the  host  of  Persia,  moved  with  renewed 
caution,  until  the  Greeks  forced  him  to  a  battle  at  Platen,  ; 


28  CIVIL    WAR    IN    PERSIA. 

here  followed  a  victory,  as  glorious  on  the  land,  as  the  for- 
mer had  boon  on  the  sea.  Mardonius  was  killed,  and  of 
three  ir  hundred  thousand  men,  ofthe  Persian  army  en- 

a:  I,  iiot  more  than  three  hundred  escaped  to  return  into 
Persia.  Thus  ended  the  greatest  enterprize  that  had  ever 
been  attempted,  with  the  greatest  overthrow  that  had  ever 
been  witnessed. 

The  Greeks  thus  secured  from  foreign  invasion,  were  left 
to  cultivate  their  soil,  improve  the  arts  and  siences,  extend 
their  commerce,and  exert  their  military  prowess,  in  their  own 
private  and  domestic  quarrels,  the  most  distinguished  of  which 
was  the  Peloponncsian  war,  which  lasted  twenty-five  years. 

During  these  civil  broils  in  Greece,  a  civil  war  sprung  up 
in  Persia  :  th5  younger  Cyrus  conspired  against  his  brother 
Artaxerxes,  who  was  upon  the  throne,  passed  over  into 
Greece,  levied  a  body  of  fifteen  or  twenty  thousand  troops, 
and  led  them  into  Asia,  where  he  was  joined  by  a  large  body 
of  Persians,  from  the  province  over  which  he  was  governor  ; 
with  this  force  he  marched  towards  Babylon,  to  attack  the 
king,  who,  apprized  ofthe  conspiracy,  had  assembled  an  ar- 
my, and  gone  forth  to  meet  him. 

The  two  armies  soon  met ;  a  desperate  action  ensued  ;  the 
wing  of  the  army,  in  which  the  Greeks  were  posted,  was  vic- 
torious, the  wing  of  the  Persian  army  which  engaged  them, 
was  routed  and  lied — the  Greeks  pursued.  At  the  same  time 
Cyrus,  who  commanded  the  centre,  discovered  his  brother 
Artaxerxes,  at  th°  head  of  his  troops,  and  exclamed  "  I  see 
him,"  put  spurs  to  his  horse,  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the 
battle,  attended  by  his  guards,  and  made  a  desperate  assault 
upon  his  brother  :  here,  engaged  hand  to  hand,  the  two  he- 
roes fought  for  the  fate  ofthe  kingdom,  when  the  stroke  of  a 
soldier  struck  Cyrus  dead  at  the  feet  of  his  brother.  A  terri- 
ble carnage  ensued ;  Cyrus'  army  vas  routed,  and  cut  to 
pieces.  The  Greeks,  who  had  pursued  their  victory  too  far, 
were  cut  off  from  the  army,  and  obliged  to  trust  to  the  valour 
of  their  own  swords,  for  their  safety  and  protection.  Thus 
the  insurrection  of  Cyrus  was  closed. 

Artaxerxes  returned  to  Babylon,  and  left  his  principal  gen- 
eral, to  pursue,  and  destroy,  the  remains  ofthe  Greeks.  Ten 
thousand  ofthe  descendants  of  the  heroes  of  Thermopylae,  of 
Salamin,  and  Plntas,  were  now  left,  destitute  of  succour,  in 
the  h^jrt  of  Persia,  either  to  deliver  themselves  up  as  cap- 
tives, and  endure  the  whips  and  scorn,  and  mutilations  of  the 


RISE    AND    FALL    OP    PHiLIP.  29 

Persians  ;  to  fall  a  desperate  sacrifice  to  their  own  valour,  on 
the  plains  of  Persia  ;  or  make  a  desperate  retreat  into  their 
own  country. 

They  chose  the  latter  ;  and  this  little  phalanx,  under 
Xenophon,  their  leader,  retired  in  presence  of  the  victorious 
army  of  Artaxerxes,  into  the  northern  provinces  of  Armenia 
and  Georgia,  and  from  thence  over  mountains  and  forests 
covered  with  snow,  through  the  uncultivated  wilds,  and 
more  unculivated  savage  nations,  all  of  them  in  arms  ;  in  the 
presence  of  a  pursuing  army,  until  they  reached  the  borders 
of  the  Black  Sea.  Here  they  embarked,  and  by  a  passage, 
not  less  perilous  from  the  wintry  blasts  of  the  north  winds, 
than  from  the  swords  of  the  barbarians,  they  landed  safe 
near  where  Byzantium  then  stood,  (now  Constantinople,) 
and  passed  safely  to  their  own  homes,  to  the*inexpressible 
joy  of  their  friends,  and  the  astonishment  of  the  world. 

During  these  adventures  abroad,  the  Greeks  continued  to 
cultivate  the  arts,  enlarge  and  embellish  their  cities,  perfect 
the  science  of  letters,  and  display  to  the  world  a  succession 
of  the  greatest  heroes,  orators,  statesmen  and  poets,  together 
with  the  greatest  masters  in  the  fine  arts,  that  have  ever  em- 
bellished the  world  ;  until  the  great  Philip,  king  of  Macedon, 
arose.  This  prince,  artful,  subtle,  and  powerful,  aspired 
to  the  conquest  of  the  states  of  Greece,  and  of  the  world. 

Philip  matured  his  plans,  by  increasing  his  treasury,  as- 
sembling a  strong  militarv  force,  training  his  invincible  Ma- 
cedonian phalanx,  upon  new  and  improved  principles,  and  by 
lulling  the  neighboring  states  into  security,  by  his  orators,  or 
by  his  gold. 

When  he  was  about  to  strike  the  fatal  blow  to  the  liber- 
ties of  his  country,  he  was  killed  at  a  public  assembly,  by 
the  sword  of  a  young  Greek.  Thus  fell  Philip  the  ambi- 
tious ;  and  through  his  fall,  the  liberties  of  Greece  were 
once  more  preserved. 

Alexander,  the  son  and  successor  of  Philip,  upon  his  ac- 
cess to  the  throne  of  Macedon,  found  himself  in  possession 
of  all  the  vast  preparations  of  his  father,  and  being  fired  with 
the  same  ambition,  he  soon  found  opportunity  to  carry  into 
effect  all  his  plans. 

Alexander  assembled  the  same  army  which  his  father  had 
trained — put  himself  at  its  head,  and  at  a  blow  overthrew 
the  liberties  of  his  country,  and  erected  his  standard  in  tri- 
umph over  those  states,  which  the  gold  of  his  father  had 


30  EXPEDITION    OF    ALEXANDER. 

lulled  into  security  ;  and  when  he  had  settled  the  govern- 
ment of  his  country,  prepared  to  take  vengeance  on  those 
haughty  Persians,  who  had,  with  their  legions,  outraged  the 
liberties  of  Greece. 

The  eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  the  wisdom  of  Solon 
and  Lycurgue,  and  the  boasted  democracy  of  Greece,  which 
taught,  that  liberty,  valor,  patriotism,  industry,  economy,  and 
even  frugality  were  the  greatest  virtues,  had  all  fallen  a  sa- 
crifice to  the  despotic  sword  of  Alexander  ;  and  this  young 
hero,  of  twenty-five  years  of  age,  now  rose  up  like  a  Co- 
lossus to  bestride  the  world. 


CHAP.     VIII. 

Expedition  of  Alexander — Fall  of  the  Persian  Monarchy* 

BEFORE  we  enter  upon  this  extensive  expedition,  let  us 
consult  the  sacred  volume,  and  see  what  commission  God 
had  given  Alexander,  by  the  mouth  of  his  prophets. 

During  the  reign  of  the  impious  Belshazzar  king  of  Bab- 
ylon, who  was  slain  at  the  conquest  of  Cyrus,  we  find  the 
vision  of  Daniel  the  Prophet,  of  the  ram  and  he-goat,  as  re- 
corded in  the  8th  chapter  of  Daniel.  Impressed  with  the 
importance  of  this  vision,  and  the  interpretation,  let  us  ac- 
company Alexander  across  the  same  arm  of  the  sea,  which 
Xerxes  formerly  crossed  when  he  invaded  Greece,  on  to  the 
pi  vins  of  Asia  ;  let  us  accompany  him  to  the  bank  of  the 
Granicus  ;  (a  small  river  of  Asia  Minor,  which  falls  into  the 
sea  of  Marmora,)  here  he  was  met  by  a  numerous  Persian 
army  to  oppose  his  march. 

As  soon  as  Alexander  approached  the  river  in  view  of  the 
Persians,  he  lost  not  a  moment,  but  plunged  his  horse  into 
the  river  :  the  whole  army  followed  ;  the  Persians  disputed 
the  passage  with  their  whole  force ;  the  action  was  desperate, 
ar -"I  the  victory  decisive  ;  the  Persians  were  routed  and  fled  ; 
Alexander  pursued,  and  their  army  was  destroyed.  This 
victory,  considering  the  time,  place,  and  circumstances,  may 
be  considered  as  a  literal  fulfilment  of  the  vision  of  the  Ram. 
The  fruits  of  this  victory  opened  an  easy  passage  through 
Asia  Minor  ;  and  Alexander  moved  without  further  opposi- 
tion, until  he  met  Darius  the  Persian  king,  at  the  pass  of  Ci- 


SIEGE    OF    TYRE,  31 

iicia.  Here,  by  a  stratagem,  he  drew  Darius  into  the  narrow 
defiles  of  the  mountains,  where  numbers  could  not  avail  him, 
and  by  a  desperate  action,  gained  a  decisive  victory ;  took 
and  dispersed  his  army,  together  with  the  queen,  and  house- 
hold of  Darius,  with  all  the  treasure  of  his  camp.  Darius, 
with  the  shattered  remains  of  his  army,  fled  into  Persia. 

Alexander,  after  having  paid  suitable  honors  ,gpd  render- 
ed proper  testimonies  of  respect  to  the  family  of  Darius, 
moved  his  army,  by  the  way  of  the  sea,  into  Phoenicia,  and 
laid  siege  to  the  city  of  Tyre. 

That  city  which  had  been  built  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Tyre,  formerly  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  now  stood  on  an 
island,  the  seat  of  the  wealth,  and  commerce  of  the  world. 
Here  Alexander,  like  Nebuchadnezzar,  met  with  desperate 
resistance,  and  a  long  and  distressing  siege ;  which  called 
forth  all  the  talents  of  the  conqueror,  and  all  the  energies  of 
his  army  ;  at  length  valour  and  perseverance  prevailed,  the 
city  was  carried  by  assault,  and  the  riches  of  Tyre  were  con- 
verted into  instruments  of  future  conquests. 

Alexander  pursued  his  rout  into  Egypt,  which  fell  an  easy 
prey  ;  here  he  enriched  his  army  with  the  spoils  of  Egypt ; 
caused  himself  to  be  worshipped  as  the  son  of  Jupiter  Am- 
mon  ;  and  built  the  city  of  Alexandria,  which  still  bears  his 
name. 

When  he  had  settled  the  affairs  of  Egypt,  Alexander  re- 
turned into  Asia,  finished  the  conquest  of  Syria,  and  appear- 
ed before  Jerusalem  ;  here  the  high  priest  came  out  to  meet 
the  conqueror,  clad  in  all  his  royal  vestments,  attended  by 
all  his  court,  and  attempted  to  prostrate  himself  before  Alex- 
ander, and  do  him  homage  ;*  but  Alexander  forbade  him, 
saying,  that  he  had  seen  in  a  vision  in  his  own  country,  a  man 
of  his  character  and  appearance,  and  he  treated  the  high 
priest  with  great  civility  and  respect. 

When  this  ceremony  was  ended,  the  high  priest  conducted 
Alexander  into  the  temple  ;  unfolded,  and  explained  to  him 
all  the  prophecies,  relating  to  the  conquest  of  Persia  ;  par- 
ticularly the  vision  of  the  ram  and  he-goat,  Daniel's  vision 
of  the  four  beasts,  and  the  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  great 
image  ;  all  which  so  impressed  Alexander,  that  he  was  to  be 
the  conqueror  of  Asia,  that  he  took  the  Jews  into  his  special 
favor,  treated  them  with  great  respect  and  kindness,  made 

*  See  Exodus  xsviii.  where  may  be  found  a  description  of  this  cu- 
noas  dress. 


32  FALL    OF    PERSIA. 

them  rich  presents,*  gave  them  his  blessing,  and  then  pursued 
his  march  to  Babylon. 

Nothing  of  importance  occurred,  during  his  passage  of  the 
mountains  lying  between  Palestine  and  Babylon  :  when  he 
came  down  upon  the  plains  of  Persia,  he  passed  the  Euphra- 
tes in  quest  of  Darius,  and  came  up  with  him  posted  upon 
the  banks  of  the  Tigris,  surrounded  by  all  his  court,  and  at 
the  head  of%ll  the  vast  armies  of  Persia,  where  he*  awaited 
the  conqueror. 

Here  opened  anew  the  battle  of  the  Granicus  ;  Alexander 
ordered  the  charge  ;  plunged  into  the  river  at  the  head  of 
his  army  ;  and  encountered  perils,  from  the  depth  of  the 
river  and  rapidity  of  the  current,  such  as  he  had  not  before 
experienced ;  his  army  was  broken  by  the  stream,  and  thrown 
into  disorder  ;  but  all  this  he  surmounted,  gained  the  oppo- 
site bank,  amidst  the  darts  of  the  Persians  ;  drew  up  his  army, 
and  commenced  the  attack. 

Darius  was  routed,  his  army  cut  to  pieces  and  destroyed, 
and  he  himself  fled  into  Armenia,  (a  province  on  the  north,) 
where  he  was  slain  by  Bessus,  governor  of  Bactria.  Alex- 
ander pursued  and  overtook  Darius  just  in  time  to  revenge 
the  insult  offered  to  fallen  majesty,  by  causing  Bessus  to  be 
mutilated  and  slain.  He  then  returned,  and  marched  to 
Babylon,  which  opened  her  gates  to  the  conqueror,  and  here 
he  gave  his  army  repose. 

Thus  fell  the  kingdom  of  Persia  ;  which  arose  out  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Chaldea,  Assyria,  Media,  Persia  and  the  king- 
doms of  the  west,  which  were  all  united  under  Cyrus  at  the 
conquest  of  Babylon.  Thus  fell  the  head  of  gold,  and  the 
breast  and  arms  of  silver,  in  the  great  image  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar ;  thus  fell  the  second  great  beast  in  Daniel's  vision,  and 
the  kingdom  of  the  belly,  and  thighs  of  brass  was  established 
upon  their  ruins  under  the  dominion  of  the  he*goat. 

Thus  ended  the  kingdoms  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  of  Cy- 
rus, which  under  the  vision  of  the  tree,  grew  and  filled  the 
whole  earth,  and  thus  was  verified  the  denunciations  of  the 
prophet  ;  "  They  that  lead  into  captivity,  shall  go  into  cap- 
tivity ;  they  that  kill  with  the  sword,  shall  be  killed  with 
the  sword  ;"  such  are  the  decrees  of  the  Most  High,  who 
ruleth  in  the  affairs  of  the  kingdoms  of  men. 


ftREEK    EMPIRE    ESTABLISHED,  33 

CHAP.  IX. 


Alexander  establishes  the  empire  of  the  Greeks  upon  the  ruins 
of  the  Persian — dies — division  of  the  Grecian  Empire — rise 
of  the  Roman  Empire — of  the  Carthagenian — their  wars — 
fall  of  Carthage — revolutions  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

WHEN  Alexander  had  reposed  his  army,  and  settled  the 
government,  he  took  his  route  through  the  eastern  provinces,, 
which  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  conqueror  ;  built  cities  after 
his  own  name,  and  settled  their  governments,  until  he  arrived 
at  the  river  Indus.  He  then  turned  aside,  and  followed  its 
banks  to  the  Ocean  ;  rejoiced  his  army  once  more  with  a 
view  of  the  sea;  marched  into  the  northern  provinces,  sub 
dued  them  in  succession,  waged  war  with  the  Scythians,  with 
great  peril,  and  returned  to  Babylon  ;  established  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Greeks  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Babylonian  ;  but 
preserved  all  the  splencror,  pomp,  homage  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Persian  court.  Thus  the  vision  was  fulfilled. 

Alexander  who  had  now  become  a  Persian  in  the  rnidst  of 
his  Greeks,  gave  great  offence  to  those  generals,  whose  va- 
lour had  led  his  brave  troops  to  victory,  and  to  conquest ;  and 
they  dared  to  express  what  their  hearts  so  justly  opposed  ; 
Clytus,  his  friend  who  had  saved  his  life,  and  Calisthenes  the 
brave,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  unrestrained  fury  of  the  tyrant. 

That  simplicity  of  manners,  that  had  nursed  that  Grecian 
valor,  which  had  hewn  out  the  way  to  empire  for  this  con- 
queror of  the  world,  was  now  exchanged  for  Persian  pomp 
and  corruption,  and  the  stern  Greeks  saw  their  king  lost  in 
sensuality. 

Having  rioted  in  all  the  luxuries  of  eastern  pomp,  and  ef- 
feminacy for  six  years,  this  he-goat  of  the  west,  this  son  of 
Jupiter  Ammon ;  this  hero  of  the  east  ;  this  conqueror  of 
the  world  ;  fell  a  prey  to  his  own  licentiousness,  and  died  as 
a  fool  dieth,  in  the  excess  of  his  cups. 

Here  again  the  scriptures  of  truth  in  the  1  Hh  chapter  of 
Daniel  were  fulfilled  :  his  kingdom  was  divided  between  his 
four  principal  generals,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  own  family, 
Cassanojer,  held  Babylon  and  the  provinces  of  the  east ;  Ly- 
simachus,  held  Thrace,  with  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  ;  Se- 
leucus,  held  Syria  ;  and  Ptolemy  held  Egypt. 

The  wars  of  the  Seleucida3  in  Syria,  between  the  Jews  on 
fhe  north,  and  the  Ptolemies  of  Egypt  on  the  south,  have  so  ex- 
actly fulfilled  the  prophecies  of  this  lltb  chapter  of  Daniel, 


34  BEATH    OF    ALEXANDER. 

that  many  have  supposed  they  were  written  after  the  events , 
particularly  those  which  relate  to  the  persecutions  of  the 
Jews  ;  their  distresses  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  his  de- 
predations and  massacres,  together  with  the  destruction  of 
their  temple  ;  his  violation  of  the  rights  of  their  holy  religion, 
in  causing  them  to  eat  swine's  flesh  ;  his  profanation  of  their 
sanctuary,  in  causing  them  to  offer  it  upon  their  altars  to  their 
God.  These  sacrilegious  cruelties  have  led  many  to  suppose 
Antiochus  to  be  the  type,  or  forerunner  of  Antichrist. 

These  scourges  of  the  church  of  God,  and  of  the  world, 
continued  their  depredations  down  to  the  conquest  of  the  Ro- 
mans, about  sixty-live  years  before  Christ.  The  wars  be- 
tween the  Syrians  and  Egyptians,  were  almost  perpetual ; 
and  yet  the  descendants  of  Ishmael,  who  inhabit  Arabia,  ly- 
ing partly  between  the  two,  dwelt  quietly,  and  were  not  entan- 
gled in  their  wars.  Thus  far  a  fulfilment  of  the  promise  of 
God  to  Ishmael. 

Since  the  call  of  Abraham,  God  %as  displayed  himself  to 
men,  by  the  majesty  of  his  power  and  goodness,  in  planting 
and  building  up  his  church  ;  has  rolled  on  one  great  event 
after  another,  to  chastise  his  own  people  for  theiridolatry,  and 
backslidings  ;  and  scourge  their  enemies  for  their  corrup- 
tions, as  well  as  their  cruelties  to  his  people  and  church. 

We  have  witnessed  the  revolutions  of  the  three  great  em- 
pires of  the  image  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  three  first 
beasts  of  Daniel's  vision  ;  we  have  now  come  down  to  the 
fourth  kingdom,  as  expressed  by  the  legs  of  iron  in  the  image. 
and  the  fourth  beast  of  the  vision,  strong  exceedingly,  with 
great  iron  teeth. 

Before  we  commence  this  part  of  our  narrative,  let  us  go 
back  and  examine  the  origin  of  the  Romans,  or  fourth  king- 
dom, and  learn  their  character. 

In  the  year  1480  before  Christ,  was  founded  the  city  of 
T .  oy,  upon  the  eastern  borders  of  the  sea,  now  called  Archi- 
pelago, between  the  settlements  in  Asia  Minor,  and  ancient 
Greece.  Paris,  son  of  Priam  king  of  Troy,  was  guilty  of  out- 
rage to  a  Grecian  princess  ;  this  kindled  a  war,  and  all  Greece 
was  in  arms  to'  revenge  the  indignity.  Troy  was  besieged 
by  the  Greeks,  and  at  the  end  often  years  fell  a  sacrifice  to 
their  artful  stratagems,  and  was  razed  to  its  foundations — 
blotted  out  from  the  list  of  cities,  and  the  Trojans  from  the 
fist  of  nations.  This  war  called  into  action  the  genius  of 
Homer,  the  father  of  epic  poetry,  to  celebrate  the  feats  of 
arms  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 


A  sma 


DIVISION    OF    THE    GRECIAN    EMPIRE.  35 


small  colony  sprung  from  the  ruins  of  this  renowned  city, 
under  JEneas  their  leader,  passed  into  Italy,  and  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  Roman  state. '  In  the  year  753  before 
Christ,  about  the  time  of  the  dispersion  of  the  ten  tribes  into 
Nineveh,  and  the  east,  Romulus  who  was  then  their  chief, 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  city  of  Rome.  This  little  city, 
in  the  midst  of  a  ruda,  savage  country,  grew  up  by  incessant 
wars,  at  the  expense  of  her  neighbours,  until  it  swallowed 
up  all  other  kingdoms,  and  gave  laws  to  the  world.* 

Rome  was  checked  and  harassed  in  her  progress  by  her 
great  rivaf,  Carthage,  about  four  hundred  years. 

Carthage  sprang  from  ancient  Tyre,  by  a  colony,  which,  in 
the  year  1259  before  Christ,  in  the  time  of  the  judges  of  Is- 
rael, was  led  into  Africa,  by  queen  Dido.  Her  character 
was  like  that  of  the  Tyrians,  commercial,  corrupt,  avaricious 
and  practising  the  idolatry  of  the  ancient  Assyrians  and  Pheni- 
cians,  with  the  barbarous  custom,  or  rite,  of  human  sacrifice. 

The  ambition  of  the  Carthagenians,  in  their  early  ages, 
was  carried  in  their  wars,  into  Spain,  Sicily,  Rhodes  and  the 
isles  of  the  sea.  The  Greeks  were  commercial,  and  checked 
their  depredations  in  the  Archipelago,  until  the  Romans 
were  compelled  by  these  ambitious  neighbours,  to  turn  their 
attention  to  their  fleet. 

The  city  of  Carthage,  which  stood  upon  the  north  of  Afri- 
ca, upon  the  bay  where  Tunis  now  stands,  was  founded  about 
1233  before  Christ,  as  a  rival  of  Tyre  ;  became  the  seat  of 
the  commerce  of  the  north  of  Africa,  and  of  the  west  ;  but 
the  limits  of  her  territory  being  so  narrowly  circumscribed 
by  the  great  desert  of  Barca,  and  the  kingdom  of  Numidia, 
that  she  could  acquire  an  extent  of  territory,  only  by  foreign 
conquest  ;  this  exhausted  her  treasure,  trained  her  rival  to 
arms,  and  proved  her  ruin. 

The  governments  of  these  states  were  monarchial  ;  that 
of  Carthage  continued  ;  but  the  government  of  Rome  was 
changed  into  a  consular  government,  under  their  fifth  king 
Tarquin,  and  the  senate,  with  two  consuls,  chosen  annually, 
by  the  people,  governed  Rome  for  the  space  of  eight  hun- 
dred years,  and  raised  her  to  the  summit  of  her  greatness. 

The  rival  strength  of  these  two  cities  was  first  called  into 
action,  in  the  contest  for  the  island  of  Sicily,  next  carried  in- 
to Africa,  raged  with  violence  by  sen  and  bind,  tweiity-twc* 
years,  and  was  closed  favourably  to  the  Romans. 

*  Appendix  R. 


3%  CIVIL    WAR    IN    ROME. 

tribes,  and  states,  hat!  now  to  drink  of  the  cup  of  her  own 
affliction,  which  grew  out  of  her  ambition. 

A  great  question  at  this  time  arost^  at  Rome,  between  her 
two  greatest  consuls,  Cesar  and  Pompey,  which  should  rule. 
This,  like  all  other  such  questions,  led  to  an  appeal  to  the 
sword,  and  a  civil  war  commenced  ;  the  great  champions 
collected  their  armies,  and  retired  into  the  country  of  the 
Greeks  ;  they  met  at  Pharsalia,  and  an  action  commenced, 
the  conflict  was  worthy  of  the  chiefs  and  their  companions  in 
arms  ;  the  prize  was  home.  Cesar  prevailed  ;  Pompey 
fled  to  Egypt  ;  the  terror  of  Cesar's  arms  had  gone  before 
him,  Egypt  durst  not  give  asylum  to  a  Roman  fugitive  ; 
Pompey  landed  in  Egypt,  fell  by  the  hand  of  the  assassin,  and 
thus  left  to  Cesar  the  quiet  possession  of  Rome,  sixty  years 
before  Christ. 

Ambition  had  cherished  the  virtues  and  liberties  of  Rome, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  all  her  greatness.  Virtue,  liberty, 
und  ambition  combined,  raised  her  triumphs  over  Carthage, 
with  Africa,  Europe  and  Asia,  and  seated  her  upon  the  throne 
c>f  the  world.  Here  her  virtue  expired  ;  luxury,  effeminacy, 
Jind  corruption  succeeded  ;  jealousy,  faction,  and  a  corrupt 
ambition  followed,  with  all  that  train  of  furious  passions,  rchicfi 
are  the  life  and  soul  of  factions  in  all  states,  and  armed  the 
nation  against  herself. 

Factions,  the  bane  of  all  states  and  empires,  when  once 
formed,  seldom  if  ever  close,  without  the  triumph  of  party  ; 
and  this  triumph  generally  seals  the  liberties  of  the  people, 
by  the  energies  of  government. 

The  factions  of  Rome  had  long  preyed  upon  the  virtues  of 
the  state,  until  they  had  sown  the  seeds  of  corruption  amongst 
the  people  ;  and  then  their  chiefs,  with  the  sword,  caused 
them  to  become  the  instruments  of  their  own  slavery  and  ruin. 

The  genius  of  the  Roman  government  favored  the  revolu- 
tion we  have  witnessed,  by  placing  so  great  power  in  the 
hands  of  their  military  chiefs,  without  a  balance  of  power  in 
the  senate  to  check  and  control  it.  This,  when  regulated  by 
virtue,  and  foreign  conquest,  was  not  only  safe,  but  the  great 
spring  which  raised  Rome  to  the  summit  of  her  glory. 

When  the  virtues  of  the  state,  and  the  ambition  of  foreign 
conquest  were  removed,  and  faction  prevailed,  the  sword  of 
conquest  was  turned  by  Cesar,  and 'Pompey,  against  the  lib- 
erties of  their  country,  and  filled  Rome  with  butchery  and 
distress  ;  great  Cato  fell  ;  Pompey  fell  ;  that  senate  which 


A  conspiracy  had  been  laid  by  the  Senators,  to  take  the  life 
of  CtEsar,  and  the  day  on  which  he  was  to  be  offered  the  crown 
was  affixed  for  its  execution.  Accordingly  on  that  day,  C&sar 
having  entered  the  senate  house,  and  taken  his  seat,  the  Sena- 
tors came  near,  under  pretence  of  saluting  him.  Cimlnr,  who 
was  one  of  them,  approaching  him  in  a  suppliant  posture,  took 
hold  of  his  robe  and  held  him  so  as  to  prevent  his  rising.  Bru- 
tus and  Cassius  (leaders  of  the  conspiracy,)  utith  others,  then 
precipitated  their  daggers  into  his  body,  sifter  defending  him- 
self manfully,  he  fell,  having  received  twenty  three  wounds, 
from  hands  which  he  vainly  supposed  had  been  disarmed  by  his 
benefit*. 


CIVIL    WAR     IN    R051E.  39 

kid  been  the  terror  and  admiration  of  the  world,  fell;  the 
pride  and  glory  of  the  Roman  state,  her  liberty,  fell;  and 
Cesar  was  lord  of  Rome. 

Cesar  had  triumphed  over  Pompey,  and  the  liberties  of 
Rome,  and  was  now,  imperial  dictator  in  the  heart  of  the 
world  ;  but  the  virtue  of  Rome  was  not  all  gone  ;  Brutus  yet 
lived,  Cassius,  Cicero  and  others  had  yet  survived  the  fall  of 
Pompey  and  Cato,  and  when  Cesar  had  declared  that  Rome 
must  be  imperial,  and  Cesar  the  emperor,  they  slew  him  in 
the  midst  of  his  senate  ;  not  that  Senate  which  had  Cato  for 
its  head,  he  had  yielded  up  his  life  with  the  liberties  of  his 
country,  upon  the  point  of  his  own  sword,  and  the  glory  of 
that  senate  was  lost  in  the  fall  of  Cato. 

The  fall  of  Cesar,  opened  afresh  the  civil  wars  of  Rome. 
Anthony,  the  friend  of  Cesar  ;  Brutus  and  Cassius,  the  aven- 
gers of  their  country  ;  Octavius  Cesar,  then  a  youth,  the  ne- 
phew of  Julius  Cesar,  and  heir  by  adoption,  set  up  their 
claims,  and  drew  the  sword. 

The  struggle  between  these  conflicting  interests,  was  long 
and  severe  :  Rome  bled  at  every  pore  ;  the  field,  the  block, 
and  the  scaffold,  wasted  the  best  blood  of  the  nation.  In  this 
great  struggle,  the  great  Tully  fell,  under  the  axe  of  proscrip- 
tion ;  Brutus  and  Cassius  fell  ;  the  battle  of  Actium  sealed 
the  fate  of  Rome  ;  Anthony  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  fell,  and 
young  Octavius  reigned  triumphant,  filled  the  imperial  chair 
of  his  uncle  Julius,  and  gave  peace  to  the  world,  under  the 
title  of  Augustus  Cesar. 

The  temple  of  Janus  was  now  shut  for  the  first  time  since 
it  was  built;  the  golden  age  of  the  world  had  now  arrived, 
and  the  storm  of  war  was  hushed  into  along  repose. 


CHAP.   X. 

Advent  of  the  Messiah — his  life  and  doctrines,  death  and  resur- 
rection— prophecy  upon  Jerusalem — destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem— dis per si on  of  the  Jews — division  of  the  Roman  Empire 
— rise  of  the  Papal  pozser. 

IN  this  glorious,  peaceful  reign  of  Augustus  Cesar,  the  fifth 
kingdom  commenced,  Dan.  1 1 — 44,  45.  and  the  glorious 
epoch  arrived  when  the  promise  of  God  to  Adam  was  ac- 


40  COLDEN    AGE    OP    THE    WORLD. 

complished,  "  the  seed  of  the  woman  shall  bruise  the  afcr.- 
pent'shead."  The  promise  to  Abraham,  "  that  in  his  seed, 
all  the  families  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed  ;" — The  pro- 
mise of  good  old  Jacob,  in  his  blessing  to  Judah,  "  the  scep- 
tre shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor  a  lawgiver  from  between 
bis  feet,  until  Shiloh  come,  and  unto  him  shall  the  gathering 
of  the  people  be." — The  prophecy  of  Moses  :  x<  A  prophet 
shall  the  Lord  your  God  raise  up  unto  you  like  unto  me," 
&c. — The  vision  of  Nebuchadnezzar  :  "  And  1  saw  a  stone 
cut  out  of  the  mountain  without  hands,  that  smote  the  image 
upon  his  feet,  and  brake  them  to  pieces,  and  became  a  great 
mountain  and  filled  the  whole  earth  ;" — The  promise  of  God 
to  the  world  by  all  his  prophets,  was  accomplished  in  this 
peaceful  reign.  The  star  appeared  in  Bethlehem  ;  the  an- 
gelic host  proclaimed  in  anthems  of  praise,  "  glory  to  God  in 
the  highest,  and  on  earth  peace,  good  will  towards  men." 
"  Behold  !  I  bring  you  glad  tidings  of  great  joy,  which  shall 
be  to  all  people,  for  unto  us  is  born  this  day,  in  the  city  of  Da- 
vid, a  Saviour,  who  is  Christ  the  Lord."  "  For  unto  us  a 
Son  is  born,  unto  us  a  Child  is  given  ;  and  his  name  shall  be 
called  wonderful,  counsellor,  the  mighty  God,  the  everlasting 
Father,  the  Prince  of  Peace."  In  Bethlehem  of  Judea,  the 
wise  men,  as  directed  by  the  star,  witnessed,  and  published 
this  glorious  event,  this  accomplishment  of  so  many  prophe- 
cies, through  so  many  ages  of  the  world,  the  advent  of  this 
Alpha  and  Omega,  this  bright  and  morning  star  ; — this  key  of 
life,  and  immortality  beyond  the  grave  ; — this  Saviour  of 
men  ; — this  "  Immanuel,  God  with  us." 

Great  were  the  displays  of  God  to  men,  through  the  patri- 
archs, Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  all  the  prophets  ;  in- 
finitely greater  have  they  been  through  his  Son. 

In  him  has  been  exhibited  a  perfect  pattern  for  our  in- 
struction :  love  to  God,  and  benevolence  to  men.  A  system 
of  miracles  which  he  wrought,  fully  confirm  this  truth,  "  1 
and  my  Father  are  one." 

Christ's  sermon  on  the  mount,  as  recorded  in  the  5th,  6th, 
and  7th  chapters  of  St.  Matthew's  gospel,  unfold  a  system  of 
truths,  for  our  moral  and  religious  instruction,  worthy  the 
Saviour  of  men  ; — Maxims,  which  if  reduced  to  practice, 
would  make  a  heaven  upon  earth.  Well  might  it  be  said, 
"  He  taught  as  one  having  authority,  and  not  as  the  Scribes," 
'"  S lively  man  never  spake  like  this  man." 

were  the  displays  of  divine  power  at  feis  cruci- 


DISPLAYS    OF    CHRIST.  41 

fixion  ;  darkness  covered  the  earth  at  noon  day,  the  earth 
shook  to  its  centre,  the  rocks  rent,  the  graves  opened,  and 
many  that  slept  in  the  dust,  sprang  into  life.  The  veil  of  the 
temple,  which  had  so  long  concealed  this  great  mystery  from 
the  view  of  men,  was  rent  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  when 
he  bowed  his  head  in  death,  and  said,  "  it  is  finished." 

His  enemies  appalled  at  the  awful  sublimity  of  the  scene, 
exclaimed  in  the  anguish  of  their  hearts,  "  surely  this  was  a 
righteous  man  !" 

The  resurrection  of  this  key  of  life,  and  immortality,  be- 
yond the  grave,  as  he  had  announced  to  his  followers  :  the 
declaration  of  the  angels  who  accompanied  his  glorious  as- 
cension ;  "  Why  stand  ye  here  looking  up  to  heaven  ?  this 
same  Jesus  whom  ye  now  see  ascend  into  heaven,  shall  come 
again  in  like  manner,  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  ;"  the  descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  promised  Comforter,  upon  his  disci- 
ples, on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  upon  all  his  saints  from 
that  day  to  this  ;  the  exact  accomplishment  of  the  judgments 
Christ  denounced  against  Jerusalem  ;  **  O  Jerusalem,  Jeru- 
salem, thou  that  killest  the  prophets,  and  stonest  them  that 
are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  1  have  gathered  thy 
children  together  as  a  hen  gathereth  her  brood  under  her 
wings,  and  ye  would  not  ;  behold  your  house  is  left  unto  you 
desolate;"  His  address  and  prediction  to  his  disciples  when 
admiring  the  beauty  of  the  temple,  "  See  ye  these  goodly 
stones,  Verily  I  say  unto  you,  there  shall  not  be  left  one  stone 
upon  another  that  shall  not  be  thrown  down," — All,  all  claim 
the  faith,  reverence,  obedience,  homage,  and  adoration  of 
men. 

The  manner  in  which  he  has  caused  the  doctrines  and 
principles  that  he  taught,  together  with  the  miracles  which 
he  wrought,  and  the  displays  of  benevolence  that  he  exhibi- 
ted, in  his  life,  for  the  instruction  of  the  world,  to  be  trans- 
mitted down  to  us,  by  the  fourfold  testimony  of  his  disciples 
(called  evangelists)  also  his  miraculous  commission  of  Saul 
of  Tarsus,  (a  persecutor  of  his  principles  and  followers  )  to 
go  forth  as  Paul  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  :  that 
through  him  the  whole  world  might  receive  the  knowledge  of 
this  gre  it  truth,  "  that  all  things  are  given  by  the  Father  to 
the  Son,"  and  that  he  hath  not  only  redeemed  the  world  ; 
but  that  he  shall  judge  the  world* ; — All  claim  the  gratitude 
ofman. 

So  fully  were  the  prophecies  of  Jsaiah  viii.  and  ix.  and 
4* 


OF  THE 

Daniel  ix.  verse  24,  and  onward,  accomplished  at  the  tiuae 
of  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  and  so  fully  was  he  looked  for, 
by  the  Jewish  nation  at  this  time,  "  that  many  false  Christs 
appeared  and  deceived  many  ;"  but  the  pride  cf  the  Jews 
had  blinded  their  eyes,  they  had  overlooked  the  first  advent, 
when  Christ  was  to  appear  as  a  pattern  of  humility,  meek- 
ness, patience  and  benevolence,  which  should  reprove  their 
haughty  pharisaical  character  ;  and  were  looking  for  a  prince 
and  a  king,  \vho  should  deliver  their  nation  from  Roman 
bondage,  gratify  their  ambitious  pride,  and  give  them  the 
dominion  of  the  world.  This  haughty  spirit  led  them  to  de- 
nounce their  Saviour,  and  exclaim,  "  away  w;ith  him,  cru- 
cify him,  crucify  him  ;  his  blood  be  upon  us,  and  upon  our 
children." 

God  has  taken  the  forfeiture  at  their  hands  :  sifted  them 
as  wheat  among  the  nations,  and  caused  the  prediction  of  the 
prophet  again  to  be  accomplished  in  them.  "  A  hiss  and  a 
by-word  shalt  thou  be  among  the  nations  ;"  which  continues 
to  this  day. 

Seventy  years  after  the  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension 
of  the  Messiah  ;  Titus,  the  son  of  Vespasian,  the  Roman  em- 
peror, laid  siege  to  Jerusalem  with  a  great  army,  took  their 
city  after  a  long  and  distressing  siege  (in  which  the  sufferings 
of  the  Jews  were  great  beyond  all  former  example,)  gave  it 
np  to  pillage,  and  the  sword  ;  butchered,  destroyed,  and  dis- 
persed the  inhabitants  ;  razed  their  temple,  and  ploughed 
up  its  foundations.  Thus  the  avarice  of  the  Jews,  who  had 
hid  their  wealth  under  the  walls  of  their  temple,  led  to  the 
accomplishment  of  the  ever  memorable  prophecy  of  the  Mes- 
siah upon  its  ruin.  "  Not  one  stone  shall  be  left  upon  anoth- 
er." 

The  Romans,  so  long  as  they  held  Syria  and  Palestine  as  a 
province,  (four  or  five  hundred  years,)  treated  the  Jews 
with  great  severity.  In  the  fifth  century  the  Arabians  or 
Saracens  entered  Palestine,  broke  down  the  Roman  power, 
established  the  Mahometan  religion  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Jewish,  drove  out  il  e  remnant  that  had  survived  the  se- 
verities of  Roman  persecution,  and  rendered  the  country  a 
desert. 

This  deluded,  distressed  people,  once  the  chosen  of  God, 
und  favoured  of  heaven,  now  became  the  fugitives,  and  vaga- 
bonds of  the  whole  earth,  without  character,  without  country, 
without  governmeotj  union,  or  head  ;  the  derision,  scorn  and 


TRIUMPH    OF    THE    CHURCH. 


orld.  They  have  been  these  eighteen  hundred 
years  scraping  together  gold  as  the  dust,  to  be  prepared  at  the 
call  of  the  Messiah,  to  return  to  their  own  land,  rebuild  their 
city  and  temple,  as  is  predicted  by  tbe  prophets,  and  enjoy 
the  triumphs  of  that  glorious  day  ;  "  when  the  mountain  of 
the  Lord's  house  shall  be  exalted  upon  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  all  nations  shall  flow  unto  it  and  be  saved." 
Which  prediction,  will  as  assuredly  be  accomplished,  as  that 
they  exist  as  a  dispersed  nation. 

God  is  now  causing  the  Jews,  the  family  of  Abraham,  to 
pass  through  the  wilderness  of  the  whole  earth,  to  prepare 
them  by  his  corrections  and  judgments,  to  become  the  light 
of  the  world,  when  at  the  second  advent  of  the  Messiah,  he 
shall  again  collect  the  dispersed  of  Israel  into  the  land  of  their 
fathers  ;  Christ  the  shecbinah,  shall  illumine  their  under- 
standing, remove  the  veil  from  their  hearts,  and  a  nation 
shall  be  born  to  God  their  Saviour,  in  a  day. 

Let  us  learn  instruction  from  what  is  before  us.  "  To 
whom  much  is  given,  of  them  much  will  be  required."  If 
the  Jews  are  thus  punished  for  their  infidelity  and  disobedi- 
ence, what  will  be  our  condemnation,  for  our  disobedience 
and  corruption,  under  the  light  of  the  gospel,  with  this  nation 
aPlliving  miracle  before  our  eyes,  together  with  all  the 
prophecies,  which  have  been  so  long,  and  are  every  day  ful- 
filling in  them,  and  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Notwithstanding  the  vials  of  divine  wrath  have  been  pour 
ed  out  upon  this  ancient  church  of  God  ;  Christ  has  yet  a 
.  true  church  on  the  earth,  to  perpetuate  his  name,  and  his 
praise,  to  the  latest  generation,  into  which  at  his  second  com- 
ing, this  shepherd  of  Israel,  will  gather  the  remnant  of  his 
people,  together  with  the  fullness  of  the  Gentiles,  and  there 
shall  be  one  fold,  and  one  shepherd  throughout  the  habitable 
earth. 

This  little  church  from  its  infancy  has  been,  like  the  an- 
cient church  in  the  wilderness,  under  great  trials,  and  dis- 
tresses, as  well  as  frequent  displays  of  his  presence  and  pro- 
tection. That  Roman  empire  which  blotted  out  the  ancient 
church,  and  paved  the  way  in  the  peaceful  reign  of  Augustus 
Cesar  for  the  planting  of  the  Christian  church  ;  in  the  course 
of  three  hundred  and  fifty  years,  raised  ten  general  persecu- 
tions against  her  ;  persecutions  designed  to  drown  her  in  her 
own  blood  ;  yet  Christ  appeared  in  the  midst  of  her  afflic- 
tions, and  massacres,  aod  raised  her  to  the  donaiaion  of  bloody 


44  RISE    OF    POPERY. 

idolatrous  Rome,  under  the  patronage  of  Constantine  the 
great,  and  through  him  she  ruled  the  Roman  empire. 

In  the  midst  of  these  triumphs,  Constantine  removed  the 
seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  Byzantium,  (a  city  of 
Greece)  on  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  changed  its 
name  to  that  of  Constantinople,  in  honor  of  the  emperor  ; 
this  struck  a  fatal  blow  to  imperial  Rome  ;  from  this  time  the 
legs  of  iron,  in  this  part  of  the  great  image  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, began  to  decline,  "  the  feet,  part  of  iron,  and  part  of 
clay"  began  to  appear,  and  the  empire  began  "  to  be  partly 
strong,  and  partly  broken." 

When  the  Ernperor  Constantine  removed  the  government 
to  Constantinople,  he  left  a  viceroy  in  the  west,  styled  the 
Exarch  of  Ravenna  :  (the  name  of  the  city  where  he  resided) 
he,  with  the  bishop  of  Rome,  governed  in  the  west.  The 
pomp  and  splendor,  which  Constantine  attached  to  the 
churches,  and  to  the  worship,  greatly  increased  the  power, 
and  influence  of  the  bishops,  particularly  the  bishop  of 
Rome  ;  whose  power  soon  become  superior  to  that  of  the 
Exarch's  of  Ravenna. 

The  meekness,  simplicity,  and  humility  of  the  gospel,  were 
soon  succeeded,  and  swallowed  up  in  this  new  order  of 
things  ;  which  the  luxury  and  effeminacy,  of  the  Roman 
state,  at  this  time,  greatly  favored.  Under  this  state  ofthings, 
and  soon  after  the  death  of  Constantine,  the  Goths  and  Van- 
dals, under  Ahric,  began  to  make  their  depredations  upon 
the  western  empire  410  ;  and  revenge  upon  those  corrupt, 
effeminate  Romans,  the  injuries  they  had  suffered,  from  the 
depredations  of  their  warlike  ancestors. 

These  ravages  continued  about  forty  years  ;  attended  with 
all  the  excesses  and  cruelties  of  savage  wars  :  until  Attilla, 
(styled  the  scourge  of  God)  with  his  Huns,  put  an  end  to  the 
western  empire,  by  laying  waste  the  countries,  extermina- 
ting the  inhabitants,  pillaging  and  sacking  Rome. 

With  the  fall  of  the  western  empire,  fell  all  the  laws,  reli- 
gion, arts  and  sciences,  of  the  west  ;  and  a  state  of  perfect 
ignorance  and  barbarism,  rose  upon  its  ruins.  This  change 
introduced  that  period,  known  bv  the  name  of  the  dark  ages  ; 
which  continued  about  eight  hundred  years  ;  down  to  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  ;  and  in  some  degree  to  this 
day. 

The  religion  ofthese  barbarians,  was  the  grossest  pagan- 
ism. They  respected  neither  age,  sex,  principle,  or  proper- 


PAPAL  SUPREMACY.  4i 

(y,  excepting  that  of  the  bishops  of  Rome  :  this  the  bishops 
soon  took  advantage  of,  and  made  up  a  religion,  exactly  suit- 
ed to  the  spirit  of  the  times  :  having  the  old  Jewish  religion 
for  its  basis. 

The  bishop  of  Rome  laid  aside  his  mitre,  took  the  triple 
erown  and  sceptre  ;  and  upon  this  Jewish  basis  introduced 
the  worship  of  saints  and  images  ;  in  imitation  of  the  heathen 
mythology  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  Pagan  religion 
of  the  barbarians.  To  these  he  added  a  corrupt  christianitjr ; 
retaining  little  more  of  it,  in  its  purity  and  power,  than  the 
name. 

Armed  with  the  authority  of  this  religion,  the  bishop  of 
Rome  assumed  independent  sovereignty,^  and  exercised  the 
powers  of  a  temporal  prince  ;  the  tyrant  Phocas,  who  was 
then  upon  the  throne  of  Constantinople,  confirmed  this 
power  by  a  special  edict,  about  the  year  606.  Under  this 
edict  were  united,  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers  of  the 
bishops  of  Rome,  and  they  claimed  and  exercised  universal 
sovereignty. 

About  the  year  746,  the  Franks,  in  addition  to  the  Goths, 
Vandals,  Allans,  and  Burgundi,  who  had  overrun  Gaul,  came 
over  the  Rhine,  and  settled  in  the  north,  under  Pharamond 
their  leader.  Clovis,  their  king,  embraced  the  papal  reli- 
gion ;  and  Pepin,  one  of  his  successors,  drew  his  sword,  and 
marched  an  army  into  Italy,  to  protect  the  pope  against  his 
neighbors,  when  he  began  to  make  too  free  with  his  powers 
as  universal  bishop.  The  Pope,  in  his  turn,  to  reward  Pe- 
pin's  fidelity,  gave  him  his  benediction  ;  and  a  general  har- 
mony has  since  prevailed  between  the  two  governments. 

The  bishop  of  Rome,  or  Pope,  having  thus  obtained  and 
exercised  universal  sovereignty  :  assumed  to  himself  divine 
honors  under  the  title  of"  our  Lord  God  the  pope  ;  the  im- 
maculate representative  of  God  ;  vicar  of  Jesus  Christ; 
and  head  of  the  church."  Also,  as  proprietor  of  St.  Peter, 
he  held  the  keys  of  £ternal  justice,  and  became  the  grand  ar- 
biter of  all  spiritual  concerns  ;  and  the  dispenser  of  pardon 
for  all  sins,  past,  present,  and  to  come.  The  ceremony  of 
address  to  his  holiness  was,  to  kiss  his  great  toe  ;  with,  or 
without  the  golden, slipper,  as  his  holiness  might  graciously 
condescend. 

Thus  seated  on  a  temporal  throne,  with  a  dominion  over 
the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  neighboring  country,  called  the 
ecclesiastical  states,  which  afford  a  small  revenue  ;  the  sale 
fcf  indulgences  gave  a  handsome  addition  to  the  crown  ;  and 


4t>  FIRST     CRUSADE. 

to  increase  it,  his  holiness  created  a  middle  state,  after  death, 
called  purgatory,  where  all  souls  rested,  that  were  not  par- 
doned at  death  ;  if  they  were  not  ransomed  by  their  friend?, 
with  money,  in  a  reasonable  time,  and  prayed  out,  they  pas- 
sed into  hell :  but  if  thus  saved,  they  went  to  heaven. 

This  system  of  finance  gave  his  holiness  a  revenue,  that 
enabled  him  to  support  a  throne,  with  more  magnificence  and 
splendor,  than  any  other  potentate.  See  Daniel,  7th  chap- 
ter, 7th  and  8th  verses,  also  21—24,  25,  26. 


CHAP.  XI. 

Kingdom  of  Charlemagne — of  Mahomet — of  the  Turks— fall 
of  the  Roman  empire  at  Constantinople. 

WE  have  now  traced  the  progress  of  this  horn  of  the  Ro- 
man beast,  down  to  the  year  800.  At  this  time  arose  Char- 
lemagne king  of  the  Franks  ;  who  subdued  the  several  small 
states  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  established  the  sove- 
reignty and  unity  of  the  crown  of  France  ;  placed  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  German  empire  ;  and  received  from  the  hands 
of  Leo  the  3d,  the  iron  crown  of  the  Romans,  with  the  title  of 
Emperor  of  the  West. 

Charlemagne,  in  his  turn,  protected  the  Pope  ;  enforced 
the  papal  religion,  with  fire  and  sword,  throughout  all  his 
dominions  ;  and  became  one  of  the  heads  of  the  Roman  beast, 
about  200  years  after  Pepin.  This  little  horn,  this  papal 
beast,  continued  in  regular  progression,  to  enlarge  and  extend 
hi?  power  and  influence,  until  the  pontificate  of  Urban  2d, 
1005,  when  the  vision  of  the  prophet  was  full}'  accomplished. 
*'  And  these" — i.  e.  the  ten  horns  "  shall  agree  to  give  their 
power  unto  the  beast." 

About  200  years  after  Charlemagne,  Peter  the  Hermit 
came  out  of  Germany  over  the  Rhine,  into  the  southern 
kingdoms,  and  preached  the  first  crusade  or  holy  war,  against 
the  infidels,  who  were  then  in  possession  of  Jerusalem.  The 
flame  spread  like  lightning  throughout  Christendom.  Prin- 
ces sold  or  mortgaged  their  estates,  to  raise  money  ;  rallied 
their  subjects  for  the  war,  and  took  the  field  in  perron  ; 
marched,  or  rather  swarmed,  into  the  plnins  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  from  thence  intp  8vria,  and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem. 


RISE  OF  MAHOMET. 


Here  was  exhibited  such  zeal  and  feats  of  valour,  as  were 
never  before  known.  The  city  was  carried  by  assault,  and 
the  Christians  held  it  one  year.  Before  we  proceed  further 
with  this  war,  we  will  take  a  view  of  the  rise,  progress  and 
character  of  the  powers  against  which  all  Christendom  had 
drawn  the  sword. 

The  prophecy  upon  Ishmael,  when  he  was  driven  out  from 
his  father's  house,  has  been  thus  far  accomplished  ;  the  storms 
of  war  have  burst  all  around  him,  yet  he  has  dwelt  quietly  in 
the  presence  of  his  brethren.  We  will  now  see  how  he  put 
forth  his  hand  upon  the  countries,  rose  into  power,  and  "  be- 
came a  great  nation." 

About  the  year  606,  Mahomet,  a  monk  of  Mecca,  renoun- 
ced his  religion,  in  which  he  had  been  educated,  retired  to  a 
cave,  and  framed  a  new  one.  As  I  have  shewn,  how  the 
prophecy  of  the  little  horn  was  fulfilled  in  the  papal  power  ; 
so  I  will  shew,  how  the  prophecy  of  St.  John — Revelation  ix. 
1 — llth,  has  been  accomplished,  in  these  locusts  of  Arabia. 

When  Mahomet  had  matured  his  religion,  he  came  forth, 
and  published  it  at  Mecca  ;  asserting,  that  God  had  sent 
Christ,  to  publish  his  Religion,  to  persuade  men  to  heaven, 
but  that  He  had  sent  Mahomet  to  compel  them  to  heaven  ; — 
that  he  was  the  representative  of  God,  and  the  only  true 
prophet.  He  took  for  the  basis  of  his  religion,  the  old  Jew- 
ish patriarchal  ;  with  the  indulgence  of  polygamy,  and  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  wine.  In  prayer,  copying  the  Pharisees, 
but  discarding  the  ritual  or  ceremonial  law  :  denouncing 
Christ,  and  proclaiming  himself  the  only  true  prophet. 

Mahomet  discarded  the  bible,  and  made  one  of  his  own, 
called  the  Koran,  or  Alcoran;  composed  of  a  great  number 
of  detached  sentences,  enjoining  polygamy,  and  prohibiting 
the  use  of  wine  :  enjoining  prayers,  and  here  and  there  an- 
nouncing "  God  is  God,  and  Mahomet  is  his  prophet  !" 

This  religion  being  new,  and  more  indulgent  to  the  ambi- 
tion, lusts  and  corruptions  of  men,  he  soon  had  followers.  He 
also  met  with  opposition.  The  city  of  Mecca  banished  the 
prophet,  who  fled  to  Medina,  (another  city  of  Arabia)  which 
flight,  called  in  Arabic  the  Hegira,  is  the  date  of  the  Mahom- 
etan era.  Here  his  followers  increased,  till  they  soon  made  a 
strong  military  force.  With  this,  he  subdued  his  own  country ; 
then  carried  his  arms  into  Palestine,  and  took  Jerusalem  in  637. 

He  next  overrun  Egypt,  and  took  the  city  of  Alexandria. 
The  Caliph  Omnr  ordered  the  largest  library  in  the  world,  to 


RISE    OF    THE    TURKS'. 


be  burnt  ;  with  this  reason,  "  that  if  it  contained  any  thing 
which  was  not  in  the  Koran,  it  ought  to  be  burnt,  if  not,  it 
ought  to  be  burnt." 

With  the  wealth  and  spoils  of  Egypt,  another  army  was 
raised  which  went  into  the  east  ;  overran  and  subdued  the 
eastern  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  took  Babylon,  and 
razed  it  to  its  foundations  ;  and  as  the  prophets,  Jeremiah 
and  Isaiah  had  predicted,  "  swept  her  with  the  besom  of  de- 
struction, so  that  her  place  is  not  to  be  found." 

The  army  of  Egypt  proceeded  west  at  the  same  time,  over- 
ran and  subdued  all  the  Roman  provinces  on  the  north  of  Af- 
rica, passed  over  into  Spain,  subdued  that,  and  passed  into 
France  :  here  they  were  checked  in  a  severe  action,  with 
Charles  Martel,  king  of  France  ;  and  were  driven  back  into 
Spain  ;  where  they  held  possession,  until  they  were  driven 
out,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Moors,  in  1091. 

These  locusts  of  the  bottomless  pit,  continued  their  rava- 
ges upon  the  southern  section  of  the  Roman  empire,  five 
prophetic  months,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  :  they  then 
built  Bagdad,  in  the  east,  on  the  Tigris,  and  called  it  "  the 
city  of  peace." 

The  conquests  of  the  Ishmaelites,  Mahometans  or  locusts. 
extended  over  all  the  north  of  Africa,  Syria,  PalestiiJfe,  and 
the  eastern  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  to  the  river 
Indus  :  and  the  religion  of  the  prophet  was  enforced  with 
the  sword,  throughout  all  this  extent  of  dominion  ;  where 
it  continued  to  prevail  under  the  Saracens,  until  these  pro- 
vinces were  wrested  from  them  by  the  Turks. 

When  the  vision  of  locusts  was  closed  ;  the  prophet  adds, 
*  "  one  woe  is  past,  behold  !  there  come  two  woes  more  here- 
after ;"  in  the  next  verse  goes  on  to  unfold  the  vision  of  the 
Euphratean  horsemen  :  and  long  before  the  use  of  gun-pow- 
der was  known,  he  describes  the  exact  explosion,  as  it  ap- 
pears when  horsemen  fire  on  horseback,  "  fire,  smoke  anc 
brimstone,  coming  out  of  the  horses'  mouths."  These  Tar- 
tars began  their  conquests  with  cavalry,  and  very  numert 
cavalry  ;  and  the  use  of  fire  arms  gave  them  a  great  superi- 
ority over  the^r  enemies,  and  rendered  their  conquests  rapic 
ajid  easy. 

They  overran  and  destroyed  the  Saracen  empire,  in  th< 
east,  took  Bagdad  the  capital,  conquered  Syria,  and  took  Je- 
rusalem. They  also  conquered  Egypt,  and  all  the  Saracer 


states, 


CONQUEST    OF    CONSTANTINOPLE.  49 


on  the  north  of  Africa  ;  and  having  triumphed  over 
the  eastern  and  southern  sections  of  the  Roman  empire,  they 
entered  Europe,  and  fixed  their  capital  at  Constantinople,  in 
the  year  1450.  Thus  the  western  Roman  Empire,  was  pla- 
ced under  the  dominion  of  the  papal  religion,  and  the  eastern 
under  that  of  Mahomet  :  where  they  will  remain,  until  the 
accomplishment  ofthe  prediction  ofthe  apostle,  2  Thessalo- 
nians,  ii.  3.  "  Who  opposeth  and  exalteth  himself  above  all 
that  is  called  God,  or  is  worshipped  ;  sitting  in  the  temple  of 
God,  shewing  himself  that  he  is  God  :  whom  the  Lord  shall 
consume,  with  the  breath  of  his  mouth,  and  the  brightness  of 
his  coming  ;"  and  until  the  vision  contained  in  the  2d  chap- 
ter of  Daniel,  and  the  latter  part  ofthe  7th  shall  4>e  fulfilled. 

Thus  we  have  seen  how  a  few  military  adventurers  under 
Mahomet,  grew  into  power,  and  overran  mighty  empires, 
states  and  kingdoms  :  also,  how  a  small  clan  of  Tartars  near 
the  source  ofthe  river  Euphrates,  began  their  depredations 
upon  their  neighbors,  and  being  enriched  and  encouraged  by 
their  spoils,  soon  became  numerous  and  powerful  ;  subdued 
the  conquests  the  Saracens  had  made  and  enjoyed  four  hund- 
red years  ;  adopted  their  religion,  enforced  it  like  Mahomet, 
with  the  sword,  and  the  arm  of  the  law  ;  fixed  their  capital 
in  the  seat  of  the  beast  with  great  iron  teeth,  and  aspired  to 
the  dominion  ofthe  world. 

Thus  we  have  seen,  the  displays  of  the  goodness  of  God, 
in  the  communications  of  himself,  and  his  will  to  men,  through 
the  successive  ages  of  the  world,  from  the  creation,  to  the 
flood  ;  a  period  of  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty-six 
years  :  from  the  flood  to  the  call  of  Abraham,  and  the  foun- 
ding of  his  church  :  from  thence,  through  the  medium  of  his 
prophets,  God  has  unfolded  all  the  great  events  which  were, 
to  come  to  pass  ;  and  the  pens  ofthe  several  historians  have 
recorded  their  accomplishment,  down  to  ihe  destruction  of 
the  Roman  empire,  and  the  establishment  of  the  beast  and 
false  prophet  upon  its  ruins. 

From  the  several  christenings  of  the  ancient  and  modern 
church,  (or  Jewish  and  Christian,)  we  may  learn  the  tfiith 
ofthe  great  maxim  of  inspiration,  that  "  to  whom  much  is 
git  en,  of  them  much  will  be  required" — and  "  he  that  knovv- 
eth  his  master's  will,  anddoeth  it  not,  shall  be  be  beaten  with 
many  stripes." 

END    OF    JMPiT    FIRST. 


APPENDIX 

TO  PART  FIRST. 

PERSIA. 

THE  Medo-Persian  empire,  which  was  founded  by  Cyrus 
upon  the  union  of  the  Babylonian,  Medean,  and  Persian  em- 
pires, about  536  years  before  Christ,  passed  through  a  suc- 
cession of  revolutions  ;  first  by  the  conquest  of  the  Greeks  ; 
next  by  the  conquest  of  the  Romans  ;  then  by  the  Saracens, 
cr  Arabians  ;  next  by  the  Turks. 

About  the  close  of  the  !  2th,  or  beginning  of  the  13th  centu- 
•  v,  Jenghis  Khan,  a  Tartar  Prince,  on  the  north  of  Persia, 
sprang  up,  assumed  the  style  of  conqueror,  overran  Persia, 
a  great  part  of  Hindostan,  (or  hither  India,)  extended  his 
arms  into  the  east  as  far  as  the  confines  of  China,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  that  extensive  monarchy,  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Mogul's  empire,  or  empire  of  the  great  Mogul, 
lie  was  succeeded  by  Timer  Bek  or  Tamerlane,  (another 
Tartar  prince,)  who  extended  his  conquests  over  all  that 
part  of  Asia,  which  formerly  composed  the  extensive  empire 
of  Persia,  greatly,  weakened  the  growing  strength  of  the 
Turks,  and  fixed  the  permanency  of  the  Mogul's  empire, 
1399. 

The  dynasty  continued  in  his  line,  almost  three  centuries 
and  a  half,  until  the  conquest  of  Kouli  Khan,  1732.  This 
prince  or  sophi  of  Persia,  threw  off  the  Tartar  yoke,  and 
like  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden,  roused  up  his  countrymen  to 
assert  their  liberties  :  with  this  spirit,  he  broke  the  usurpa- 
tion of  the  Tartars  in  Persia,  and  greatly  weakened  the  em- 
pire of  the  Moguls.  Since  his  conquest,  the  empire  of  Per- 
sia has  been  governed,  like  Egypt,  by  a  number  of  indepen- 
dent sovereignties,  and  has  been  the  theatre  of  distressing- 
civil  wars. 

Kouli  Khan,  also  penetrated  into  Hindostan  1735,  dissolved 
the  government  of  the  Moguls,  and  left  that  country  like 
Persia,  under  the  government  of  a  great  number  of  indepen- 
dent sovereignties,  styled  Soubahs,  or  Nabobs.  The  civil 
wars  between  these  Nabobs,  laid  the  foundation  for  the  ex- 
tensive conquests  and  settlements  of  the  English  East  India 
company  in  India,  and  guaranteed  to  them  a  revenue,  which 


CHINA.  51 

has  enabled  England  to  resist  the  ambition  of  the  French  re- 
volution, furnish  money  for  the  support  of  all  confederated 
Europe,  through  this  arduous  struggle  of  a  twenty  year's  war, 
and  by  a  splendid  triumph  give  peace  to  the  world. 

We  should  here  notice  the  display  of  the  government  of- 
God,  in  raising  up  Chnrles  XII.  king  of  Sweden,  to  excite  a 
spirit  of  enterprise  in  Russia.  We  now  see  in  Persia,  a  char- 
acter of  the  same  description,  in  Kouli  Khan  ;  raised  up  yt 
the  same  time,  and  to  co-operate  in  the  same  signal  events, 
(although  so  remote  from  each  other)  by  laying  the  founda- 
tion for  those  conquests  in  India,  which  have  furnished  the. 
purse  for  confederated  Europe,  through  the  medium  of  Eng- 
land, and  rendered  their  sword  triumphant. 

CHINA. 

THIS  empire,  on  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  continent  of 
Asia,  differing  from  all  others  in  its  government,  religion, 
manners,  customs,  and  extensive  population  ;  is  noted  for 
the  pride  of  antiquity.  The  modern  Chinese  carry  back 
their  origin  beyond  the  flood,  and  some  of  them  beyond  the 
creation.  About  two  hundred  years  before  Christ,  literature 
began  to  flourish  in  China,  the  art  of  printing  was  discover- 
ed ;  their  first  historian,  Sematsian,  wrote  about  ninety-seven 
years  before  Christ. 

There  is  nothing  that  appears  in  their  history  with  any 
certainty,  farther  back  than  the  first  dynasty  under  Prince 
Yao,  or  Yu,  about  two  thousand  years  before  Christ."  From 
the  nicest  investigation  of  Chinese  chronology,  by  some  mod- 
ern arid  learned  Chinese,  who  were  educated  in  France  and 
returned  to  China  in  the  year  1765,  and  whose  correspon- 
dence has  since  been  published  at  Paris  ;  it  does  not  appear, 
that  the  kingdom  was  founded  earlier  than  the  year  of  the 
world  2207. 

The  Chinese  suffered  much  from  the  depredations  of  the 
northern  Tartars,  until  the  reign  of  Chi-ho-angti,  who  caused 
the  famous  northern  wall  to  be  built,  extending  one  thousand 
five  hundred  miles,  from  east  to  west.  This  secured  the 
peace  of  China  for  several  centuries  ;  but  the  Tartars,  after 
repeated  assaults,  and  depredations,  finally  succeeded  in  break- 
ing over  the  wall,  and  subduing  the  empire  in  1635,  and  a 
Tartar  dynasty  is  now  upon  the  throne.  Under  this  dynasty, 
all  the  eastern  part  of  the  Mogul's  empire  has  been  added  to 


£2  SOVJKRNMENT    OF  CHINA. 

China.     The  emperor  resides  in  summer  in  Tartary,  andia 
winter  in  China  ;  whLh  preserves  the  union. 

China  Proper  is  supposed  to  contain  more  inhabit antsthan 
r.ll  Europe,  they  being  estimated  by  Sir  George  Staunton  at 
l.uree  hundred  millions.  The  love  of  country  is  such  in 
China,  that  they  are  never  known  to  emigrate  ;  they  carry 
on  no  foreign  commerce,  although  their  exports  are  immense. 
'Foreigners  are  not  admitted  into  any  of  their  cities,  and  only 
into  particular  parts  of  their  country  near  the  sea  coast,  and 
into  the  suburbs  of  a  few  particular  commercial  cities. 

Their  government  is  absolute,  and  yet  patriarchal  ;  the 
emperor  is  not  the  tyrant,  but  the  father  of  his  people.  Their 
religion  is  pagan  ;  but  so  far  mixed  with  the  religion  of  Bra- 
ma,  that  they  have  pure,  and  simple  ideas  of  the  supreme 
being,  who  presides  over  the  universe  :  the  doctrine  of 
transmigration  also,  makes  a  part  of  the  religion  of  China. 

This  country  was  first  visited  by  the  Portuguese,  in  their 
discoveries  in  the  Indian  ocean,  in  the  year  1586  ;  when 
they  obtained  a  grant  of  the  island  of  Macao,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  harbor  of  Canton.  Since  that  time,  the  commerce 
of  China  has  been  carried  on  from  Europe  and  America,  by 
the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  pope  sent  missionaries,  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
into  China,  in  the  year  1692,  who  met  with  some  apparent 
success,  until  they  began  te  shew  a  disposition  to  dictate  in 
the  affairs  of  the  government  ;  then  the  emperor  expelled 
them  in  1742.  The  English  government  attempted  to  es- 
tablish %  diplomatic  intercourse  with  China  in  1792,  and  sent, 
lord  M'Cartney  for  this  special  purpose  ;  but  some  manoeu- 
vres on  the  coast,  particularly  in  approaching  the  shores 
with  their  ships,  making  soundings,  &c.  and  imprudence  in 
the  mission  soon  defeated  the  object.  The  jealousy  of  the 
emperor  was  alive  to  these  movements,  and  it  is  owing  en- 
tirely to  such  jealousy,  that  China  "has  so  long  retained  her 
government. 

United  America,  will  doubtless  in  a  few  years  enjoy  a  free 
trade  with  China,  from  the  western  shore  of  this  continent, 
where  will  spring  up  and  flourish,  some  of  the  largest  and 
most  splendid  cities. 

H1NDOSTAN. 

THIS  Peninsula,  known  by  the  name  of  India  within  the 


ENGLISH    SETTI.EME.fTS    IN    I 


Ganges,  (or  hither  India)  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese, 
in  1497  ;  and  in  the  year  1506,  they  commenced  the  settle- 
ment of  Goa,  on  the  Malabar  coast.  Here  they  established 
an  inquisition  which  continues  to  this  day.  It  was  visited 
over  land  by  the  English,  1591,  and  at  the  same  time  by  a 
private  adventure,  of  three  ships.  This  adventure  proved 
unfortunate  ;  two  of  the  ships  were  lost,  and  the  third  was 
seized  on  by  the  crew,  and  the  captain,  after  an  absence  of 
three  years,  returned  to  England  in  another  ship. 

This  adventure,  though  disastrous,  laid  the  foundation  for 
nil  the  future  prosperity  of  the  English  in  India.  The  intelli- 
gence brought  home  by  captain  Lancaster,  induced  a  second 
adventure,  which  proved  successful,  and  laid  the  foundation 
©f  the  charter  for  the  first  East  India  company,  Dec.  1600, 
with  a  stock  of  72,OOOZ.  In  1698,  anew  company  was  formed  ; 
and  in  1700,  the  old  one  was  re-established,  for  which  they 
agreed  to  pay  to  government  400,  OOO/.  for  five  years.  In 
1773,  the  British  government  passed  their  India  Bill,  and  in 
1774  they  sent  out  judges  from  England,  to  preside  over 
their  India  settlements.  The  commerce  of  India  continues 
to  increase  and  flourish  to  this  day. 

The  Dutch  next  explored  the  Indian  ocean,  and  touched 
upon  the  peninsula  ofHindostan  in  1595.  The  English  East 
India  company  made  their  first  voyage  in  1601.  The  same 
year  the  French  doubled  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  visited 
India.  In  1612,  the  Danes  made  their  first  voyage  to  India. 
All  these  kingdoms  established  India  companies,  after  the 
manner  of  the  English. 

This  country,  when  first  visited  by  Europeans,  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  viceroyalties,  or  sovereignties,  united  under 
the  emperor  of  Hindostan,  or  the  Mogul's  empire  ;  posses- 
sing an  extensive  population,  and  enjoying  one  of  the  richest 
and  most  fertile  soils,  with  a-mild  and  delightful  climate. 
The  frequent  wars  which  sprang  up  from  time  to  time,  be- 
tween the  princes  or  Soubahs,  led  them  to  have  recourse  to 
the  Europeans  for  aid. 

In  1738,  the  famous  Kouli  Khan,  after  having  usurped  the 
Persian  throne,  overran  a  great  part  of  the  Mogul's  empire, 
weakened,  and  destroyed  the  power  of  the  descendants  of 
Tamerlane,  a  power  which  had  continued  nearly  three  cen- 
turies and  a  half;  also  overran  Hindostan,  dissolved  the  uni- 
ty »f  the  empire,  and  left  it  at  the  mercy  of  a  great  numl-er 
5* 


•  ENGLISH    SETTLEMENTS  IN 

of  independent  princes,  who  soon  became  rivals,  and  render- 
ed this  delightful  country,  a  theatre  of  perpetual  wars,  and 
devastation. 

This  weakness  of  the  natives,  was  soon  turned  to  the  ad- 
rantage  of  the  Europeans,  and  enabled  them  to  maintain,  and 
extend  their  settlements,  the  English,  at,Bombay,  Madras. 
Calcutta,  &c.  ;  and  the  French,  at  Pondicherry. 

At  the  peace  of  1763,  the  French  ceded  Pondicherry  to 
the  English,  which  gave  them  an  unrivalled  possession  of 
the  sea  coast  of  this  eastern  world,  secured  the  foundation 
of  their  extensive  commerce,  wealth  and  power  :  and  enabled 
her  to  become  mistress  of  the  seas  and  arbiter  of  the  world. 

The  population  that  has  grown  out  of  these  settlements, 
with  the  extensive  conquests  which  the  British  East  India 
company  have  since  made,  amount  to  about  twenty  millions  ; 
this,  added  to  the  settlements  the  English  have  made,  and 
acquired,  in  the  Indian  ocean,  (including  New  Holland,  and 
the  isles)  is  estimated  at  forty  millions. 

This  extensive,  rich,  and  populous  country,  has  become 
the  theatre  of  Christian  missionaries.  The  ancient  religion 
of  this  country,  was  the  religion  of  Brama,  who  taught 
the  doctrine  of  one  supreme  being,  who  made,  and  gov. 
erns  all  things,  together  with  the  absurd  doctrine  of 
meternsychosis,  or  transmigration  of  souls  at  death,  into 
the  forms  of  all  the  different  animals,  according  to  their 
characters  in  life  ;  and  the  practice  of  image  worship,  or 
idolatry. 

Into  what  a  state  of  corruption,  ignorance,  superstition, 
and  enthusiasm,  this  religion  is  now  fallen,  has  been  very  im- 
pressively disclosed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Buchanan.  Successful 
efforts  are  now  making  to  translate  the  Bible  into  the  differ- 
ent oriental  languages,  and  diffuse  it  throughout  this  eastern 
world.  A  work  slow  in  its  progress,  but  one  which  will  as- 
suredly prosper  and  succeed. 

TARTARY. 

This  vast  extent  of  country,  lying  upon  the  north  of  Asia, 
and  extending  from  the  eastern  borders  of  Russia  in  Europe, 
to  the  northern  ocean  on  the  north,  and  the  Pacific  ocean  on 
the  east,  embracing  Chinese  Tartary,  Thibet,  and  a  part  of 
Hiadostan  on  the  south  ;  was  all  known  to  the  Greeks  and 


SESCRIPTION    OF    THE    TARTARS.  55 

lomans,  under  the  general  name  of  Scythia.  The  ancient 
Scythians  defeated  Alexander,  by  retiring  before  him,  laying 
waste  their  country,  and  decoying  him  into  their  uncultivated 
wilds,  where  lie  had  like  to  have  been  ruined  and  de- 
stroyed. 

The  same  mode  of  warfare  was  practised  by  the  Parthians, 
or  Scythians,  in  the  east,  upon  the  Roman  general  Crassus, 
who  was  ruined  with  his  army  amidst  the  sands,  and  unculti- 
vated plains  of  Parthia.  By  this  mode  of  defence,  they 
have  been  able  to  secure  their  country  from  conquest ;  but 
it  has  been  no  security  against  the  feuds,  civil  wars,  and  mas- 
sacres, which  have  constantly  arisen  out  of  their  savage, 
barbarous  manner  of  life,  their  divided,  and  wandering 
mode  of  subsisting,  and  the  total  want  of  union,  and  energy  in 
their  government.  These  civil  wars,  and  massacres,  have 
been  common,  and  often  attended  with  the  slaughter  of  three 
or  four  hundred  thousand.  This  has  kept  dourn  their  popu- 
lation, arid  wasted  their  strength  ;  and  has  been  the  chief 
cause  of  their  submission  to  the  Russian  government. 

Some  large  and  populous  cities  are  scattered  throughout 
this  vast  extent  of  country  ;  but  literature  and  the  arts  have 
never  flourished  in  Tartary.  The  mass  of  the  population 
lead  wandering  shepherd  lives,  or  subsist  by  fishing,  and 
hunting.  The  Tartars  are  noted  for  their  attachment  to  the 
horse,  and  of  course  for  their  numerous  and  fine  horses  : 
they  also  prefer  the  flesh  of  this  animal  to  that  of  the  ox,  or 
cow. 

From  these  regions  of  barbarism,  sprang  up  Othman,  the 
conqueror  of  the  west  of  Asia,  and  chief  of  the  Turks  ; 
Jeughis  Khan,  and  Tamerlane,  the  conquerors  of  the  middle 
and  southern  parts  of  Asia  ;  and  from  Chinese  Tartary  sprang 
the  present  reigning  family  on  the  throne  of  China.  Since 
the  conquests  of  Kouli  Khan  (the  Persian,)  early  in  the  last 
century,  there  has  been  a  general  quiet  throughout  this  east- 
ern world. 

The  war  practised  by  the  Russians  upon  the  emperor  Na- 
poleon in  1812,  was  a  Tartar  war  ;  the  same  as  was  practised 
upon  Alexander,  the  Grecian  ;  upon  Crassus,  the  Roman, 
and  upon  all  other  foreign  invasions.  The  Russians  decoyed 
him  into  their  country,  by  retiring,  and  laying  it  waste  ; 
and  when  the  emperor  presumed  that  he  had  secured  his 
object,  in  the  possession  of  Moscow  ;  the  Tartar  governor 
Pt'astopchin,  set  fire  to  the  city,  and  burnt  him  out.  This 


•50  WARS    OF    THE    TARTARS. 

mode  of  defence  has  been  invariably  practised  from  the  ear- 
lie?!  ages,  and  with  invariable  success. 

Ail  this  nest  of  ancient  and  modern  conquerors,  lying  east 
of  Russia  in  Europe,  is  now  under  a  general  system  of  gov- 
ernment, and  subject  to  the  emperor  of  Russia  ;  which  will 
account  for  the  general  quiet  that  has  so  long  prevailed  in 
this  country.  Should  the  ambition  of  the  present,  or  some 
future  emperor,  rouse  up  this  now  dormant  force  ;  the  same 
scenes  would  be  acted  over  again,  and  the  same  consequen- 
ces result  from  them,  as  from  the  invasions  of  Othman, 
Jenghis  Khan,  Tamerlane,  &LC.  The  same  countries  which 
were  then  the  theatres  of  conquest,  are  now  as  inviting,  and 
as  defenceless  as  they  were  then  ;  arid  when  under  the  direc- 
tion of  one  government,  so  well  organized,  and  so  energetic 
as  that  of  Russia,  it  may  well  be  presumed  that  more  serious, 
and  extensive  conquests  may  be  effected,  than  any  that  have 
been  recorded. 

The  southern  nations  are  aware  of  this,  and  it  is  said  that 
the  Turks  have  a  tradition,  that  the  Russians  will  subdue 
their  empire,  and  that  they  even  fix  upon  a  particular  gate, 
at  which  they  will  enter  when,  they  shall  subdue  Constanti- 
nople. 

Thus  the  southern  kingdoms  of  Asia  have  been  ravaged, 
and  laid  waste  by  the  Tartars,  or  Scythians  of  Asia,  from 
time  to  time,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  southern  kingdoms 
of  Europe  have  been  ravaged,  and  laid  waste  by  the  Celtii, 
Tartars,  or  Scythians  of  Europe.  Even  we,  the  favored  in- 
habitants of  America,  sprang  from  the  Saxons  who  were 
a  clan,  or  tribe  of  Celtii,  or  Scythians,  who  subdued  the 
Britons  ;  planted  in  that  isle  the  first  principles  of  liberty, 
and  pure  representative  government,  and  transplanted  them 
into  this  new  world,  where  they  have  flourished,  and  eclip- 
ied  the  original  stock. 

EGYPT. 

THIS  kingdom  was  founded  by  Mizraim,  the  son  of  Hani, 
in  the  year  before  Christ.  2188.  Possessing  the  richest 
soil,  and  the  most  inviting  climate,  it  flourished  above  all  other 
kingdoms,  in  wealth,  splendor,  literature,  and  the  arts,  and 
became  the  nursery  from  whence  the  splendid  nations  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  derived  their  literature,  and  knowledge 
of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Egypt  became  .jaof  only  the  pride 


CHARACTER    OF    EGYPT.  £7 

of  the  world,  but  the  envy  of  the  world.  It  continued  one 
thousand  five  hundred  and  eighty-eight  years,  when  it  was 
broken,  and  subdued  by  Nebuchadnezzar  king  of  Assyria, 
about  six  hundred  years  before  Christ. 

During  this  period,  were  constructed  those  stupendous 
monuments  of  the  arts,  the  pyramids  ;  the  largest  of  which 
covers  with  its  base  six  acres  of  ground,  and  is  six  hundred 
feet  in  height  ;  their  splendid  obelisks,  and  mummies,  (those 
monuments  of  the  art  of  embalming  their  dead,)  the  Egyp- 
tian cement,  which  hardened  with  time,  and  became  more 
durable  than  stone  ;  the  canal  that  united  the  Nile  with  the 
Rod  Sea,  and  the  almost  innumerable  canals  that  conducted 
the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  and  fertilized  the  whole  face  of 
the  country  ;  these  were  amongst  the  arts  and  improveme  nts 
which  distinguished  Egypt. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  plundered  and  sacked  the  kingdom, 
broke  its  spirit,  and  rendered  it  an  easy  prey  to  the  succes- 
sive conquerors.  Alexander  the  great  conquered  Egypt 
about  the  year  330  before  Christ,  and  after  his  death  it  fell 
under  the  government  of  Ptolemy,  one  of  his  generals.  It 
would  have  flourished  under  the  Ptolemies,  had  it  not  been 
harrassed  and  distressed  by  the  perpetual  wars  with  the  Se- 
lucidag,  or  kings  of  Syria. 

With  the  fall  of  the  Grecian  empire,  Egypt  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Romans,  in  the  year  31  after  Christ.  It 
continued  a  Roman  province  until  the  conquest  of  the  Sara- 
cens, about  the  year  625.  They  established  the  Mahometan 
religion,  and  governed  Egypt  by  their  caliphs,  until  the  con- 
quest of  the  Turks,  in  the  }rear  1525. 

The  Turks  confirmed  the  Mahometan  religion  in  Egypt, 
and  throughout  their  empire,  and  prostrated  the  strength  of 
the  kingdom,  by  giving  it  up  to  the  government  of  a  great 
number  of  petty  sovereigns,  called  Beys,  who  wasted  the 
rnernes,  wealth,  and  resources  of  the  country,  and  became 
tributary  to  the  sultan  of  Constantinople.  In  1799,  this 
basest  of  ki  '  verrun  by  the  French,  under  general 

Bonap:    :  it  was  conquered  by  the  English  ;  and 

in  }  C:'''          .      by  the  Krurl'-b  back  again  to  the  Turks,  under 
it  now  continues.     Thus  we  see  how  the  pre- 
<]j.  /  the  prophet,  "  E^ypt  shall  become  the  basest  of 

"  IMS  been  fulfilled. 

.  Its  origin,  :st  PR  n-icient  as  Assyria,  and 

Chaldea  ;  and  its  duration  as  a  kingdom,  has  clearly  evinced 


i>8  CHARACTER    OF    EGYPT. 

the  importance  of  those  virtuous  institutions,  on  which  this 
monarchy  was  founded.  At  this  early  age  of  the  world,  the 
knowledge  of  the  true  God  was  lost,  all  men  were  sunk  in  a 
gross,  and  barbarous  idolatry  ;  the  science  of  civil  govern- 
ment was  in  its  infancy,  and  the  passions  of  men  were  corrupt. 
In  this  state  of  things,  let  us  take  a  view  of  the  principles 
which  constituted  the  basis  of  their  government,  and  see  how 
far  they  became  an  example  for  the  Greeks, — the  Romans  ; 
and  in  point  of  moral  virtue,  have  surpassed  the  governments 
of  later  ages  ;  even  of  this  boasted  age  of  wisdom,  light,  ex- 
perience, religion,  and  improvement. 

The  genius  of  their  government  was  hereditary  monarchy  ; 
to  preserve  the  customs  of  their  ancestors,  was  one  of  iti 
fundamental  maxims.  The  service  of  the  king  wras  consider- 
ed too  sacred,  to  be  degraded  by  a  foreigner  ;  and  the  ear  of 
majesty  too  pure  to  be  polluted  with  ignoble  sentiments. 

The  frugality  of  the  king,  and  even  the  simplicity  of  his 
diet,  Avere  considered  as  objects  of  public  importance,  de- 
serving the  attention  of  the  laws  ;  public  business  of  magni- 
tude and  importance,  the  prayers,  devotions  and  sacrifices  of 
the  temple,  together  with  a  rehearsal  of  the  exploits,  and 
customs  of  his  ancestors,  from  the  sacred  records,  was  pre- 
scribed to  the  king,  as  the  duties  of  the  morning.  To  enforce 
these,  a  certain  pillar  in  the  temple  of  Thebes,  was  inscribed 
with  imprecations  against  that  king  who  should  dare  to  vio- 
late them. 

To  administer  justice,  preserve  order,  and  support  the 
throne,  the  king  appointed  thirty  judges,  selected  from  all 
the  principal  cities  of  Egypt.  Wisdom  and  virtue,  with  a 
fair  and  good  report,  were  the  sole  criterions  of  preferment  ; 
and  the  judges  were  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  king. 

The  laws  governed  in  Egypt,  and  every  citizen  from  his 
infancy  was  taught  to  know  and  reverence  them.  This  es>- 
f  ablished  a  regular  system  of  habits,  which  enabled  the  Egyp- 
tians to  preserve  their  government  so  long  ;  and  is  the  true 
maxim  of  the  government  of  China  to  this  day. 

Ignorance  and  idleness  were  alike  detested  in  Egypt ;  to 
suppress  these,  'it  became  necessary  for  every  man  to  enrol 
his  name,  together  with  his  employment,  upon  a  public  re- 
gister in  the  hands  of  some  magistrate. 

The  Egyptians  exempted  from  execution,  or  the  power  of 
the  creditor,  all  the  instruments  used  by  the  debtor  to  obtain 


HER    HABITS    AND    M*ANJNTER5.  59 

his  support ;  judging  it  both  barbarous  and  infamous,  to  divest 
u  man  of  the  means  of  subsistence,  and  of  paying  his  debts, 
on  account  of  his  misfortunes  ;  but  gave  up  the  debtor  in  per- 
son to  be  imprisoned  by  the  creditor. 

The  Egyptians  paid  the  highest  respect  to  old  age  ;  the 
young  always  rose  in  their  presence,  and  did  them  reverence. 

Gratitude  amongst  the  Egyptians  was  ranked  with  the  first 
of  the  virtues,  and  gratitude  to  the  king,  claimed  the  first 
rank  ;  and  upon  this  principle,  that  he  who  is  grateful  to 
men,  will  be  grateful  to  the  gods. 

The  religion  of  the  Egyptians,  was  idolatry,  wrapped  in 
mysteries  known  only  to  the  priests,  and  long  since  lost  in 
the  ages  of  obscurity,  together  with  that  labyrinth  of  hiero- 
glyphics, which  adorned  the  pyramids,  obelisks,  pillars,  and 
statues  of  Egypt. 

The  superstition  of  the  Egyptians,  was  as  great  as  their 
deities  were  numerous,  and  it  was  death  for  any  person  to 
take  the  life  of  anyone  of  all  the  numerous  animals  they  wor- 
shipped. 

The  Egyptians,  like  all  other  idolaters,  had  this  thin  veil 
of  covering  for  their  religion,  "that  they  worshipped  God  in 
the  image,  and  not  the  image  as  God." 

The  pyramids  of  Egypt,  those  mausoleums  of  the  dead — 
together  with  their  mummies,  those  monuments  of  the  art  of 
embalming  their  dead,  clearly  shew  the  reverence  the  Egyp- 
tians paid  to  their  funerals,  and  the  sacred  rites  of  sepulture. 
By  embalming  they  preserved  entire  the  persons  of  their  an- 
cestors adorned  with  such  hieroglyphics  as  were  commemo- 
rative of  their  virtues, — and  those  only  which  were  sanction- 
ed by  the  public  voice. 

The  hieroglyphical  panegyrics  upon  the  dead,  regarded 
not  birth,  wealth,  or  honors  ;  all  Egyptians  were  considered 
noble.  The  virtues  of  the  dead,  were  alone  the  subjects  of 
praise.  The  military  character  of  Egypt,  with  all  her  boas- 
ted regularity  offeree  and  discipline,  was  never  illustrious, 
excepting  in  the  wars  of  Syria,  and  in  the  reign  of  Sesostris. 

Egypt  early  became  the  nursery  of  the  arts  and  sciences  ; 
in  these  she  excelled,  and  left  it  to  all  nations  who  have  suc- 
ceeded her,  to  become  only  her  imitators,  and  not  even  that, 
in  her  pyramids,  hieroglyphics,  the  art  of  embalming,  and  her 
wonderful  cement.  Geometry  was  greatly  improved  in  Egypt, 
by  which  means  the  study  of  astronomy,  which  commenced 
upon  the  plains  of  Babylon,  was  carried  to  great  perfection. 


60  EGYPTIAN  ARTS  >.NB  AGRICULTURE. 

The  medical  art  was  rendered  illustrious  in  Egypt,  where 
it  was  reduced  to  a  regular  system,  and  every  physician  was 
bylaw  contined  to  one  disease  only.  If  he  treated  this  ac- 
cording to  the  prescribed  rules,  he  was  not  held  responsible 
for  the  issue  ;  but  if  he  made  any  new  experiments,  his  own 
life  was  held  responsible  for  the  issue. 

The  splendid  libraries  which  were  early  founded  in  Egypt, 
shew  their  taste,  and  improvement  in  the  sciences  ;  arid  the 
sacred  dedication  of  these  libraries,  "  Office  for  the  diseases 
of  the  Soul,"  shews  the  reverence  they  attached  to  learning 
and  their  abhorrence  of  ignorance. 

The  Egyptians  excelled  in  architecture,  painting  and,  sculp- 
ture ;  but  music  never  struck  their  attention  ;  they  considered 
this  as  a  useless  art  of  effeminacy,  and  beneath  their  notice. 

Agriculture  was  the  basis  on  which  Egypt  founded  her 
greatness,  it  being  the  source  of  all  her  wealth.  All  employ- 
ments were  alike  respected  in  Egypt,  from  the  king  to  the 
peasant  ;  and  he  who  excelled  in  his  profession,  and  in  vir- 
tue, inherited  the  triumph  of  public  applause.  This  diffused 
contentment,  excited  emulation,  and  raised  every  employ- 
ment to  its  highest  perfection. 

The  country  of  Egypt  was  greatly  enriched  by  their  hus- 
bandmen, who  covered  the  whole  face  of  this  garden  of  the 
world,  with  their  numerous  flocks  and  herds.  These  consti- 
tuted the  permanent  wealth  of  their  country. 

The  soil  that  so  richly  rewarded  the  husbandmen,  was  not 
watered  by  rains  as  with  us,  but  by  the  overflowing  of  the 
river  Nile  ;  these  inundations  were  conveyed  by  numerous 
canals  over  the  whole  face  of  the  country,  to  fertilize  the 
soil,  which  has  rendered  Egypt  so  famous  for  her  corn,  and 
give  support  to  those  vast  flocks  and  herds,  which  covered  all 
her  plains. 

The  vegetation  of  Egypt  was  not  peculiar  to  that  country, 
excepting  the  papyrus,  or  plant  which  served  them  for  paper  : 
the  rest  was  common  to  countries  of  the  same  climate,  and 
continues  so  to  this  day. 

The  government  of  Egypt  supported  a  regular  system  of 
police,  every  department  in  the  kingdom  was  conducted  with 
the  greatest  order,  regularity  and  wisdom  ;  and  the  voice  of 
health  and  plenty  were  heard  in  all  their  dwellings. 

The  military  art  was  never  highly  cultivated  in  Egypt  ; 
Scsostris  alone,  carried  his  arms  abroad  beyond  the  plnius  of 
Syria.  Ho  subdued  all  the  north  of  MVini,  carne-.}  his  arms 


EGYPTIAN  CONQUESTS  AND  CORRUPTION.        61 

into  India,  about  1500  years  before  Christ,  and  left  monuments 
of  his  conquests  in  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace.  His  dominions 
extended  from  the  Ganges  to  the  Danube.  Sesostris,  at  the 
end  of  nine  years,  returned  into  Egypt,  enriched  with  the 
wealth  and  spoils  of  conquest  ;  but  left  those  nominal  con- 
quests as  free  as  he  found  them.  Sesostris  flourished  about 
the  time  of  the  departure  of  the  Hebrews. 

These  conquests  of  Sesostris  opened  the  way  for  those  col- 
onies which  passed  into  Greece  at  this  time  under  Cecrops, 
Danaus  arid  Cadmus,  who  carried  with  them  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences of  Egypt,  and  planted  the  first  seeds  of  improvement 
and  literature  in  Europe. 

The  conquests  of  Sesostris,  subverted  the  religion,  habits, 
manners  and  customs  of  Egypt ;  together  with  that  tempe- 
rance, industry,  sobriety  and  economy,  which  were  the  pil- 
lars of  Egyptian  greatness  ;  laid  the  foundation  for  all  the  fu- 
ture sufferings  of  Egypt,  and  brought  her  to  fulfil  the  predic- 
tions of  the  prophet — "  Egypt  shall  become  the  basest  of 
kingdoms." 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Sesostris,  commenced  the  reigns  of 
Cheops  and  Cephrenus,  who  caused  all  the  temples  of  reli- 
gion to  be  closed,  nearly  one  whole  century  ;  built  some  of 
the  pyramids,  prostrated  religion  and  all  the  virtues  ;  and  gave 
themselves  up  to  all  the  excesses  of  licentiousness,  cruelty 
and  barbarity.  The  whole  nation  followed  their  example  ; 
and  Egypt,  this  nursery  of  the  arts,  this  school  of  virtue  and 
morals,  this  paragon  of  industry,  temperance  and  sobriety, 
was  now  become  a  sink  of  inquity,  and  every  hateful  lust. 

Such  is  the  fate  of  all  nations,  as  soon  as  they  lose  their  vir- 
tue ;  and  the  history  of  Egypt,  as  connected  with  the  history 
of  the  Jews,  together  with  the  history  of  the  four  great  em- 
pires, clearly  shews  that  she  never  recovered  her  virtue,  re- 
ligion, strength  nor  character  ;  all  witness  against  her,  that 
ahe  became  the  basest  of  kingdoms,  even  to  this  day. 


DENMARK. 

THIS  kingdom  was  first  established  by  Gorma,  in  the  year 
714.  The  most  distinguished  part  of  the  history  of  this  king- 
dom, consists  in  its  invasions  and  depredations  upon  the  island 
of  England.  In  the  year  877,  the  Danes  succeeded  in  the  con- 
quest of  the  Saxons,  and  established  Canute  upon  the  throne. 
6 


G'  DENMARK. 

In  880  they  were  expelled  by  Alfred  the  great.  In  the  year 
995  the  Danes  extorted  a  tribute  from  the  Britons  of  16, GOO/. 
to  buy  oif  their  depredations.  In  1002  the  Danes  broke  the 
treaty,  and  by  their  renewed  depredations,  extorted  from 
Ethelred  II.  a  tribute  of  24,000/.  In  the  year  1412  Norway 
was  united  to  Denmark.  In  the  year  1521  the  kingdom  of 
Denmark  was  separated  from  the  kingdom  of  Norway,  and  in 
1660  the  crown  of  Denmark  became  hereditary. 

In  the  year  1394  the  kingdom  of  Sweden  was  united  by 
conquest  to  the  crown  of  Denmark,  and  was  subject  to  her 
until  the  year  1525,  when  Sweden  recovered  her  liberty,  un- 
der the  illustrious  Gustavus  Vasa  ;  since  which  time,  Den- 
mark has  held  a  secondary  rank  amongst  the  nations  of  the 
north.  In  1813  the  Kingdom  of  Norway  was  severed  from 
Denmark,  and  given  to  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  by  the 
confederated  powers  of  Europe,  where  it  now  remains. 

The  local  situation  of  Denmark,  gave  her  high  and  com- 
manding advantages,  to  become  one  of  the  first  commercial 
and  maritime  nations  of  the  world  ;  had  not  the  jealousy  and 
rival  strengh  of  England  kept  her  down.  In  the  year  1536 
the  protestant  religion  was  introduced  into  Denmark,  and  in 
1629  Christian  the  IV.  was  chosen  head  of  the  protestant 
league  against  the  house  of  Austria. 

It  has  been  the  policy  of  the  late  sovereigns  of  Denmark, 
to  cultivate  a  good  understanding  with  the  throne  of  England 
by  intermarriages,  and  the  issue  of  such  an  alliance,  now 
governs  the  kingdom  of  Denmark.  Denmark  still  holds 
some  possessions  in  the  Indian  ocean,  and  upon  the  western 
shore  of  Africa  ;  she  exercises  a  sovereignty  over  east  and 
west  Greenland,  and  a  part  of  Lapland  ;  and  holds  some 
small  possessions  in  the  West-ladies.  Denmark  can  never 
rise  to  eminence,  being  situated  between  the  gigantic  powers 
of  England  and  Russia. 

Such  are  the  great  outlines  of  all  the  kingdoms,  states,  and 
empires,  which  have  ever  been  distinguished,  either  for 
their  arts  or  their  arms.  To  give  a  sketch  of  the  minor 
states  and  isles.,  would  swell  this  work  to  a  needless  ex- 
pense. 


(A.)  GREECE. 
To  record  a  faithful  narrative  of  events  is  one  duty  of  a 


ORIGIN    OF    LETTERS    IN    GREECE.  ?.3 

historian  ;  but  to  diffuse  by  his  pen,  the  true  spirit  of  the 
various  scenes,  events,  exploits,  and  achievements  which  he 
relstes,  is  by  far  the  most  difficult  and  important  part  of  his 
duty  ;  and  is  as  absolutely  necessary,  to  give  spirit,  interest, 
energy  and  instruction  to  his  narrative,  as  for  a  musician,  in, 
his  performance,  to  give  expression  to  the  piece  he  performs. 

To  effect  this,  he  must  assume  the  spirit  of  every  scene, 
and  every  character,  which  become  the  subject  of  his  story. 
Hence  the  reason  why  the  history  of  Greece  so  far  surpasses 
all  others  ;  because  those  who  were  the  heroes  of  her  most 
splendid  scenes,  diffused  the  same  fire,  and  the  same  spirit, 
throughout  the  historic  page  of  their  country,  arid  taught  pos- 
terity to  feel,  what  they  had  achieved.  To  preserve  this 
fire,  is  ever  essential  to  the  preservation  of  the  history  of 
Greece. 

Greece,  which  was  situated  in  the  south  part  of  what  is 
now  Turkey  in  Europe,  we  have  already  noticed,  with  re- 
gard to  its  origin,  and  extreme  ignorance,  in  its  early  ages. 
The  splendor  of  Greece  in  later  ages,  which  gave  such  lus- 
tre to  the  historic  page,  claims  attention.  The  first  settle* 
ment  in  Greece  commenced  about  2000  years  before 
Christ,  and  about  200  years  after  the  building  of  Babylon  by 
Niinrod. 

Letters  were  introduced  into  Greece  by  Cecrops,  Cadmus, 
and  the  Egyptian  colonies,  in  the  reign  of  Sesostris,  king  oi 
Egypt — about  1500  years  before  Christ.  This  first  period  of 
Grecian  history,  is  only  a  picture  of  man  in  his  most  rude  and 
savage  state.  The  progress  of  letters,  the  arts  and  refine- 
ment under  the  Egyptian  colonies,  were  much  slower  than 
in  Britain,  after  the  conquest  of  Julius  Cesar.  The  Egyp- 
tian colonies  could  only  teach,  they  had  not,  like  the  Romans, 
the  power  to  enforce  their  knowledge. 

The  limits  of  this  work  will  not  permit  a  separate  detail  of 
the  founding,  and  progressive  improvements  of  the  several 
Grecian  colonies,  kingdoms,  or  states  ;  they  must  all  be 
comprised  under  one  general  view.  The  first  particular  in 
Grecian  history  worthy  of  notice,  is  the  expedition  of  the 
Argonauts  to  Colchos,  after  the  golden  fleece  ;  about  1200 
years  before  Christ.  The  fleece,  which  was  the  object  of 
this  voyage,  may  well  be  called  golden,  by  a  people  who 
were  like  the  ancient  Britons,  either  naked,  or  clad  in  the 
skins  of  animals,  taken  in  the  chase.  This  took  place  about 
300  years  after  Cecrops  and  Cadmus  settled  in  Greece  ;  and 


04  ARGONAVTS. 


had  this  importauce  attached  to  it ;  that  it  laid  the  foundation 
of  Grecian  commerce  and  navigation,  which  afterwards  be- 
came so  conspicuous. 

The  next  important  period  in  Grecian  history,  is  the  siege 
of  Troy,  about  900  years  before  Christ,  and  about  300  from 
the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts.  This  period  of  the  last  300 
years,  shews  the  rapid  improvements  the  Greeks  had  made 
in  letters,  arts,  and  arms,  by  the  strength  of  the  city  of 
Troy  ;  by  the  splendid  display  of  arms  during  this  ever 
memorable  siege,  often  years  ;  and  more  particularly  in  the 
unparalleled  narrative  of  the  Trojan  war,  by  Homer,  the 
father  of  epic  poetry.  All  these  combined,  serve  to  shew 
the  power  of  letters,  and  of  commerce,  to  expand  the  mind. 
elevate  the  soul,  and  exalt  the  character  of  man  to  thf  sum- 
mit of  his  rational  powers, 

The  narrative  of  Homer  diffused  a  spirit  of  ambition  and 
emulation  throughout  the  states  of  Greece  ;  which  estab- 
lished the  games  of  Olympia,  about  200  years  after  the  Tro- 
jan war,  and  about  700 before  Christ.  Itmust  not  be  under- 
stood that  these  games  originated  in  Greece  at  that  time., 
they  were  in  general  composed  of  such  athletic  exercises, 
as  have  ever  been  common  to  all  new  countries  ;  but  they 
were  reduced  to  system  and  order,  under  that  institution, 
and  greatly  enlarged  and  improved. 

The  exercises  of  these  games  consisted  in  chariot  races, 
foot  races,  &c.  together  with  all  such  athletic  exercises  as 
were  calculated  to  exert  muscular  strength  and  dexterity  : 
inspire  courage  and  emulation.  So  highly  were  the  prizes 
of  the  Olympic  games  estimated,  that  even  kings  entered 
the  lists,  and  sought  with  avidity  the  glory  of  an  Olympic 
crown. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  Olympic  games,  to  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  (which  rendered  Greece  one  theatre  of 
carnage,  about  twenty-five  years,)  about  450  years  before 
Christ ;  a  period  of  Grecian  history  was  exhibited,  the  most 
splendid  of  any  other  of  her  greatness.  In  this  age  flourish- 
ed her  greatest  orators,  heroes,  statesmen,  legislators,  phi- 
losophers, and  artists. 

In  this  period,  Darius,  king  of  Persia,  after  he  had  waged 
unsuccessful  war  against  the  ancient  Daci,  (or  Scythians  of 
Europe,  north  of  the  Danube,)  turned  his  arms  against 
Greece,  and  threatened  Athens,  with  an  army  of  300,000 


tB 


OKECIA:N7    WORTHIES.  f>JJ- 

men  under  Datis.  At  this  eventful  period,  flourished  Aristi- 
des,  Pericles,  Themistocles,  andMiltiades,  who  saved  Greece 
by  the  overthrow  of  the  Persians  at  the  famous  battle  of  Ma- 
rathon, destroyed  their  army,  and  gave  peace  to  their  country. 
At  the  commencement  of  this  period,  flourished  Lycurgus, 
the  renowned  legislator  of  Sparta,*  and  at  the  close  of  it, 
flourished  Solon,  the  famous  legislator  of  Athens  ;|  the  wis- 
dom of  whose  institutions,  (though  very  different,)  will  ever 
remain  memorable  in  the  annals  of  Greece.  During  this  pe- 
riod, and  soon  after  the  invasion  of  Darius,  commenced  the 
invasion  of  Xerxes,  which  has  been  noticed. 

*  Lycurgus,  the  renowned  legislator  of  Sparta,  travelled  into  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  the  countries  of  the  east ;  selected  ail  that  was  useful, 
and  virtuous,  from  their  governments  ;  from  which  he  formed  a  sys- 
tem of  government  for  his  country,  perfectly  simple,  and  practical. 
This  government  was  founded  upon  the  purest  principles  or  liberty, 
industry,  temperance,  patience,  virtue,  justice,  and  valour.  It  taught 
the  most  sovereign  contempt  of  riches,  idleness,  luxury,  effeminacy, 
cowardice  and  sloth  ;  alike  disclaimed  the  principles  of  ambition,  and 
conquest  ;  was  sanctioned  by  the  oracle  of  Delphos — rendered  perma- 
nent by  an  oath  of  his  country,  to  maintain  the  Constitution  in  his  ab- 
sence, until  he  should  return  ;  sealed  by  his  voluntary  banishment  and 
death  ;  continued  in  successful  operation  about  500  years  ;  enabled 
Sparta  to  triumph  over  Athens  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  become 
the  arbiter  of  Greece. 

The  great  maxim  of  the  government  of  Lycurgus  was,  to  perpetu- 
ate the  laws,  manners,  customs,  and  habits  of  his  country,  without  in- 
novation, or  change  ;  and  to  enforce  this  maxim,  he  sacrificed  his  life. 
The  immortal  Lycurgus  did  all  this,  by  a  system  of  instruction  which 
was  incorporated  into  his  government.  All  Sparta  was  one  great 
school;  and  the  maxims  of  his  government,  were  the  fundamental 
principles  of  education.  Practical  knowledge,  formed  the  wisdom  of 
Sparta. 

f  The  difference  of  character  between  the  Athenians  and  Spartans, 
was  such  as  is  common  to  states  which  are  agricultural  and  commer- 
cial. Sparta  was  agricultural,  Athens  commercial ;  the  seat  of  the 
muses  and  the  arts.  Solon  as  the  chief  magistrate,  or  Archon  of  Ath- 
ens, attempted  to  reform  her  government,  and  reduce  it  to  a  more  reg- 
ular and  practical  system. 

He  divided  Athens  into  two  great  classes,  the  rich  and  the  poor. — 
The  rich  he  again  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  their  de- 
grees of  wealth  ;  all  those  of  five  hundred  measures,  (annual  income,) 
composed  the  first  class  ;  those  of  three  hundred  the  second  ;  and  those 
pf  two,  the  third  ;  these  made  up  the  classes  of  the  rich,  and  to  these 
he  confined  all  the  public  offices. 

All  those  whose  incomes  were  less  than  two  hundred,  composed  the 
class  of  the  poor.  These  were  debarred  from  office  ;  but  as  a  com- 
pensation, be  left  them  the  privilege  of  voting  in  the  assemblies,  and 


66  DECLINE    OF     GREECE. 

The  conflicts  occasioned  by  the  revolutions  in  the  several 
states,  in  their  struggles  for  power,  between  the  tyrants,  and 
the  people  ;  between  monarchy,  aristocracy,  and  democracy, 
were  often  distressing  and  bloody.  This  people  with  all 
their  boasted  wisdom,  knew  nothing  of  that  balance  of  elec- 
tive government,  which  is  the  basis  of  English,  and  Ameri- 
can liberty.  The  conflicts  between  the  rival  states  for  su- 
premacy, (notwithstanding  the  Amphictyonic  council,  the 
Achean  league,  and  other  confederacies,)  were  often  severe 
and  desperate  :  but  the  Peloponesian  war,  which  commenc- 
ed between  the  two  great  rival  states,  Lacedemon  and  Ath- 
ens, involved  all  Greece  in  one  great  struggle,  which  raged 
twenty-five  years,  with  all  the  violence  of  Grecian  conflict ; 
closed  with  the  humiliation  of  Athens,  destroyed  their  bal- 
ance of  power,  and  established  the  supremacy  of  Sparta  ia 
Greece. 

From  this  time,  Greece  began  to  decline,  became  a  thea- 
tre of  weakness,  intrigue,  and  disorder,  amidst  all  the  splen- 

judgments  of  the  people.  An  appeal  was  open  from  the  judgments  of 
the  magistrates  to  the  people,  which  finally  placed  the  balance  of  pow- 
er in  the  hands  of  the  poor,  when  they  became  the  most  numerous  ; 
and  they  by  their  decisions  gave  law  to  the  state. 

These  principles  formed  the  great  outlines  of  the  government  of 
Solon,  and  partook  much  le«s  of  the  balance  of  power,  so  essential 
to  good  government,  than  the  system  of  Lycurgus.  Solon  restored 
and  improved  the  Areopagus,  or  high  court  of  the  nation,  introdu- 
ced many  wise  laws,  and  regulations,  which  were  calculated  to  suppress 
indolence,  and  vice  ;  and  encourage  industry,  virtue  and  good  order. 

He  then,  after  the  manner  of  Lycurgus,  obtained  an  oath  from 
his  country,  to  observe  his  laws  one  hundred  years  ;  and  went  a- 
broad  on  his  travels.  At  the  end  of  ten  years  he  returned,  and  found 
the  Athenian  state  torn  with  factions  and  civil  wars,  which  his  gov- 
ernment had  no  power  to  control,  and  the  personal  efforts  of  So- 
lon, no  power  to  regulate,  or  even  check. 

Pisistratus,  one  of  the  competitors  for  power,  amidst  the  factions 
of  his  country,  assumed  the  mask  of  meekness,  and  great  humility, 
became  the  man  of  the  people,  robbed  them  of  their  liberties,  and 
became  the  tyrant  of  Athens.  Solon  lived  to  see  Pisistratus  twice 
deposed  by  the  factions  of  his  country,  and  died  of  old  age  ;  leav- 
ing Athens  under  the  dominion  of  the  tyrant. 

This  usurpation  hi  Athens,  caused  the  wars  which  fpllowed  be- 
tween Greece  and  Persia,  and  rendered  Greece  a  theatre  of  carnage, 
and  distress,  for  so  many  years,  under  the  invasions  of  Darius  and 
Xerxes.  The  expulsion  of  the  two  great  Persian  invasions,  shewed  to 
Greece,  what  valour  could  achieve  ;  and  the  union  of  Greece,  under 
the  government  of  Alexander,  shewed  to  the  world,  the  strength  and 
energies  ef  a  permanent  government. 


RUIN    OF    GREECE.  67 

dor  of  her  boasted  refinement,  and  wisdom,  under  Socrates, 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  all  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes., 
until  she  fell  a  prey  to  the  intrigues  of  Philip  king  of  Mace- 
don,  and  the  arms  of  his  son  Alexander  ;  about  300  years 
before  Christ.  The  conquests  of  Alexander  produced  the 
same  effects  upon  Greece,  as  the  conquests  of  Sesostris  had 
done  upon  Egypt.  With  this  blow,  her  virtues  were  lost  for- 
ever ;  the  arts  and  sciences  continued  to  sink  with  her  lib- 
erty, until  the  overthrow  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  by  the 
Roman  consul  Mummius. — This  destroyed  the  Achean 
league.  Greece  was  then  blotted  out  of  the  list  of  nations, 
and  became  a  Roman  province  ;  about  150  years  before 
Christ. 

The  trophies  of  Greece  graced  the  triumphs  of  Rome,  un- 
der her  successive  consuls.  Greece  became  the  theatre  of 
Roman  war,  until  Rome  triumphed  over  all  the  neighbouring 
powers,  and  carried  her  arms  into  the  east. — Greece  was  a 
province  until  the  year  of  our  Lord  330,  when  the  emperor 
Constantine  transferred  the  seat  of  government  from  Rome 
to  Byzantium,  called  it  Constantinople,  after  his  own  name, 
and  under  the  power  and  splendor  of  the  Roman  capital,  the 
splendor  of  learning,  and  the  arts,  again  flourished  where 
Greece  lay  in  ruins. 

The  arm  of  despotism  sat  triumphant  in  the  midst  of  that 
country,  where  liberty,  valour,  patriotism,  economy,  indus- 
try, and  faugality,  with  their  attending  virtues  ;  where  wis- 
dom, philosophy,  science  and  the  arts;  once  shone  with  such 
perfect  splendor,  as  rendered  Greece  the  pride  and  admira- 
tion of  the  world. 

Her  heroes  slept  in  death,  and  witnessed  not  the  distres- 
sing  scene.  Her  legislators,  philosophers,  poets,  orators,  and 
artists  were  all  hushed  in  repose,  and  witnessed  not  the  ruins 
of  their  degraded  country  ;  that  country  they  had  enriched 
and  rendered  so  illustrious,  by  their  wisdom,  virtue,  enter- 
prise and  arms.  But  their  illustrious  deeds  are  recorded  in 
the  temple  of  immortal  fame,  and  their  names  can  never  die. 

Rome  held  the  dominion  of  Greece  from  the  conquest  of 
the  consul  Mummius,  to  the  conquest  of  the  Turks,  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  1450,  about  1600  years,  and  with  the  fall 
of  her  Grecian  power  at  Constantinople,  fell  the  last  vestige 
of  the  gigantic  power  of  Rome.  All  that  remained  of  Greece 
or  Rome,  is  now  lost  in  the  dominion  of  the  Turk.  Virtue 


68  ROMAN    GOVERNMENT. 

is  the  glory  of  man  ;  but  luxury,  vice,  and  corruption,  ever 
have  been,  and  ever  will  be,  the  ruin  of  nations. 

(B.)     ROME. 

Before  Christ. 

T'-iis  renowned  city  and  empire,  were  founded,  as  we  have 
n<  i,  by  Romulus,  one  of  the  descendants  of  ^Eneas,who 
11  Jin  the  ruins  of  Troy,  and  settled  in  Italy.  The  pe- 
r  viiich  passed  between  the  destruction  of  Troy,  and  the 
f...  ling  of  Rome,  together  with  the  advantages  which  they 
d  :  ri  /sd  from  the  improvements  of  their  country,  in  arts,  and 
in  arms,  must  have  given  the  Roman  colony  such  early 
advantages  over  the  rude  natives  of  Italy,  as  to  have  enabled 
th  ra  to  have  acquired  at  that  time,  not  only  a  respectable 
p ••  •  -assion,  but  a  superiority  of  character,  and  respectability. 
To  perpetuate  these  advantages,  Romulus,  the  then  hend  of 
the  colony,  founded  the  city  of  Rome  in  the  394th  year  after 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  and  before  Christ,  753. 

For  the  good  government  of  his  city,  he  instituted  a  senate 
or  council  of  ancients,  composed  of  100  citizens,  noted  for 
their  wisdom  and  virtue.  By  the  wisdom  of  this  senate,  he 
was  enabled  to  support  the  title  and  dignity  of  king,  and  thus 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  greatness  of  Rome.  Romulus  made 
it  the  first  object  of  his  care,  to  people  his  city  ;  and  to  this 
end,  he  invited  and  encouraged  strangers  to  settle  in  it. 
This,  like  the  settlement  of  all  new  countries,  increased  the 
male  population  fister  than  the  female.  To  obviate  this, 
he  exhibited  the  Grecian  games  in  his  little  city,  and  gave  a 
general  entertainment  to  his  neighbors  ;  in  the  midst  of 
these  scenes,  the  Romans  seized  on  the  Sabine  women,  and 
took  them  to  wife,  in  the  year  before  Christ,  750. 

This  perfidious  act,  involved  the  Romans  in  a  war,  which 
raged  through  the  life  of  Romulus,  who  reigned  thirty-seven 
years,  died,  and  was  deified.  The  government  devolved  up- 
on the  senate  for  one  year,  when  they  elected  Numa  Pom- 
pilius  their  king,  who  reigned  in  wisdom  forty-three  years, 
and  made  great  improvements.  He  was  succeeded  by  Tul- 
lius  Hortilius.  In  this  reign  was  the  famous  combat  for  su- 
premacy, between  the  three  Roman  chiefs,  the  Horatii,  and 
the  three  Alban  chiefs,  the  Curatii.  The  Romans  were  vic- 
torious, and  the  Alban  state  was  annexed  to  Rome,  667 

Thus  under  a  succession  of  kings,  the  power  and  domm- 


ROMAN  GOVERNMENT.  (3.9 

io»  of  the  Roman  city  were  enlarged,  until  the  wicked  reign 
of  Tarquin  the  proud,  their  seventh  and  last  king.  He  by 
his  unhallowed  abuse  of  Lucretia,  the  wife  of  Collatinus,  one 
of  the  nobles  of  Rome,  overthrew  the  government.  The  vir- 
tuous citizens,  fired  with  indignation  at  this  flagrant  outrage, 
flew  to  arms,  deposed  the  king,  banished  him  and  his  family, 
destroyed  the  kingly  government,  and  elected  two  consuls 
for  one  year,  with  equal  powers,  as  a  check  upon  each  other. 
These  with  the  senate,  which  had  been  incressed  to  the 
number  of  two  hundred,  now  became  the  government  of 
Rome.  '  500. 

During  this  period,  and  under  the  reign  of  the  former  Tar- 
quin, the  walls  of  Rome  were  laid,  the  circus  was  built,  which 
would  contain  150,000  spectators,  the  capitol  was  founded, 
and  the  great  outlines  of  many  great  improvements  were  be- 
gun. The  Romans  soon  experienced  a  weakness  in  their 
government,  which  arose  out  of  the  divided  head,  and  attempt- 
ed to  remedy  this,  by  creating  the  office  of  dictator,  (a  kind 
of  Emperor,)  with  supreme  power.  493. 

This  supreme  power,  added  to  the  consuls  and  senate,  soon 
became  oppressive  to  the  people,  and  they  assumed  the 
reigns  of  government,  and  created  the  office  of  tribunes  of 
the  common  people,  as  a  check  upon  the  aristocracy  of  the 
three  other  powers.  486. 

Quintus  Cincinnatus  was  taken  from  his  plough,  and  made 
dictator.  460. 

Cincinnatus  then  owned  but  four  jugera  of  land,  about  two 
acres  of  our  measures  ;  this  serves  to  show  that  merit,  not 
wealth,  governed  Rome  at  this  age,  and  that  the  people  were 
rather  jealous  of  the  rich  ;  but  all  this  did  not  satisfy  them  ; 
they  made  a  new  change  in  their  government,  chose  ten 
wise  men,  called  Decemvirs,  and  abolished  the  office  of  con- 
sul. 450. 

The  Decemvirs  formed  a  code  of  laws,  called  the  ten  ta- 
bles, and  caused  them  to  be  inscribed  upon  pillars  of  brass. 
They  became  the  standard  of  the  judicial  proceedings  of 
Rome.  In  the  second  year  of  the  Decemvirs,  one  of  their 
body  was  guilty  of  lewdness  ;  the  virtue  of  the  people  resent- 
ed the  outrage,  revenged  the  indignity,  and  abolished  the  of- 
fice, together  with  that  of  tribunes  ;  and  the  dictators  and 
senate,  governed  Rome  about  seven  years.  Their  restless 
spirit  again  became  factious,  and  they  created  the  office  of 
censor.  443. 


70  ROMAN    GOVERNMENT. 

The  object  of  this  office,  was  to  be  a  check  upon  the  dic- 
tator and  senate  ;  this  soon  failed,  and  they  chose  military 
tribunes  as  a  substitute  for  the  old  office  of  consuls.  This 
continued  two  years,  and  was  then  abolished  and  the  office 
of  consuls  restored. 

During  these  changes  in  the  government,  Rome  was  har- 
assed by  perpetual  wars,  with  the  Gauls,  and  various  other 
neighboring  nations,  particularly  the  Samnites,  who  were  the 
most  powerful  and  warlike  of  all  the  tribes  in  Italy.  These 
nations  often  distressed  the  Roman  state,  and  carried  their 
victorious  arms  to  the  gates  of  Rome. 

The  wars  of  Rome  had  hitherto  been  carried  on  for  the 
defence  of  the  state,  or  military  glory,  by  voluntary  service  ; 
they  first  began  to  pay  their  troops  about  the  year  400. 

The  office  of  consul  did  not  abridge  the  powers  of  the  sen- 
ate ;  they  were  as  independent  of  each  other,  as  in  the  times 
of  the  kings  ;  and  the  consuls  were  kings  at  the  will  of  the 
people  ;  the  consuls  led  the  armies,  and  the  senate  governed 
the  state  ;  but  the  comitiaor  general  assemblies  of  the  people, 
held  all  the  power  in  their  own  hands,  both  of  peace  and  war, 
and  through  their  tribunes,  they  held  the  two  great  springs  of 
government  in  their  hands — rewards  and  punishments.  They 
held  at  their  disposal  all  the  offices  of  state,  and  all  were 
amenable  to  the  people  for  their  conduct.  The  consuls 
were  the  executive,  the  senate  the  legislative,  and  the  peo- 
ple the  electors  and  arbiters  of  the  whole.  Here  was  energy, 
wisdom  #nd  folly,  all  so  commixed,  as  to  create  perpetual 
jealousy,  discord  and  collision  between  the  government  and 
the  people,  and  occasion  those  frequent  changes,  which  the 
true  balance  of  the  federal  constitution  of  America  so  wisely 
regulates  and  controls. 

Poverty  was  not  only  respected  at  Rome,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  appointment  of  G'incinnatus  the  dictator  ;  but  it  made  a 
part  of  their  policy,  in  using  heavy  money  of  brass,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Spartan  iron  money ;  which  continued  to  be  the 
money  of  Rome,  until  they  carried  their  arms  into  Sicily,  in 
the  first  Punic  war  ;  they  then  found  it  necessary  to  coin  sil- 
ver money.  261. 
The  virtue  and  simplicity  of  manners  in  the  Roman  state, 
were  the  palladium  of  the  liberty  of  Rome.  The  censors 
were  the  immediate  guardians  of  this  palladium;  this  office  was 
genar  illy  tilled  by  those  whose  virtues  hod  held  the  first 
dignities  ®f  the  state,  with  the  highest  approbation ;  this  office 


ROMAN    GOVERNMENT.  71 

protected  virtue  and  suppressed  vice  and  immorality,  even 
in  the  highest  walks  of  life,  with  a  severity  that  preserved 
the  Roman  virtue  pure. 

The  praetors  composed  the  judiciary  of  the  state  ;  the 
ediles  were  more  immediately  the  magistrates  of  the  city  ; 
the  two  offices  became  of  high  importance,  and  in  after  times 
the  medium  of  ambition  and  power.  The  struggles  between 
the  government  and  the  people,  shewed  the  want  of  a  middle 
state,  to  regulate  these  feuds. 

The  equestrian  order  held  this  rank  in  some  measure, 
not  by  any  delegated  powers,  but  by  the  influence  which 
their  wealth,  dignity  and  importance  gave  them  in  the  com- 
munity ;  and  when  united  with  the  patricians,  they  checked 
and  controlled  the  licentiousness  of  the  populace.  Thus  a 
partial  substitute  for  the  true  balance  in  the  government, 
grew  out  of  the  necessity  of  things,  and  the  virtue  of  the  state, 
formed  the  grand  cement  to  the  whole  ;  these  combined  with 
a  high  military  spirit  and  ardor,  together  with  the  greatness 
and  nobleness  of  the  Roman  soul,  raised  the  Roman  state 
from  a  single  point,  amidst  perpetual  struggles  in  arms,  to 
become  the  mistress  of  the  world. 

Amidst  all  the  guardians  of  Roman  greatness  and  Roman 
virtue,  stood  woman  ;  she  by  her  smiles,  or  her  frowns, 
moved  the  arbiter  of  manners,  of  morals,  and  of  virtue  ;  by 
the  dignity  and  majesty  of  her  character,  commanded  the 
admiration  and  respect  of  all  classes  and  ranks  of  citizens  ; 
and  by  the  splendor  of  her  virtues,  gave  a  lustre  to  the  Ro- 
man name.  Nothing  in  Rome,  was  held  more  sacred  than 
the  majesty  of  woman.  Such  was  the  character  of  the  Ro- 
man matrons,  that  it  stands  recorded  to  their  eternal  honor, 
that  not  one  single  divorce  stained  the  marriage  covenants 
of  Rome  for  more  than  five  hundred  years  after  the  days  of 
Romulus. 

Rome  in  her  infancy,  thus  having  laid  the  foundation  of 
her  greatness,  was  soon  visited  by  the  philosophers  of  Greece, 
Pythagoras  and  others,  who  introduced  the  Grecian  Mythol- 
ogy, which  deified  all  the  virtues,  gave  them  the  first  rank 
in  their  temples,  and  thus  perpetuated  their  value  by  their  re- 
ligious adoration. 

The  religious  homage  paid  to  the  virtues,  perpetuated  the 
purity  of  the  state,  as  their  splendid  triumphs  perpetuated  the 
lustre  of  their  arms.  Trained  in  this  school  of  temperance, 
and  the  virtues,  the  Roman  armies,  from  the  consul  to  the 
soldier,  carried  te  the  field  a  Roman  soul  warmed  with  Ro- 


72  ROMAN    GOVERNMENT. 

man  greatness  and  valor,  and  never  once  dreamed  that  they 
could  sheath  the  sword,  until  they  had  executed  the  decrees 
of  the  senate. 

Rome  began  the  second  war  with  Carthage,    B.  C.     218. 

And  the  third  Punic  war,  149. 

Carthage  was  destroyed  by  Scipiothe  Roman  consul,  146. 

Marius  the  consul  obtained  the  Roman  triumph,  with  the 
conquest  and  spoils  of  Numidia,  and  her  captive  prince,  103. 

These  were  the  days  of  virtue — these  were  the  days  in 
which  Rome,  under  the  consular  arms,  subdued  all  Europe, 
south  of  the  Danube,  from  the  Atlantic  on  the  west,  to  the 
Hellespont  on  the  east.  These  were  the  days  in  which 
Pompey  the  great  rescued  his  country  from  the  civil  wars  of 
Marius  and  Sylla,  carried  his  arms  into  Asia,  and  after  long 
and  distressing  conquests,  dedicated  to  his  triumphant  coun- 
try, the  whole  extent  of  the  states  and  kingdoms,  between  the 
Black  Sea  on  the  north,  and  the  Red  Sea  on  the  south, 
brought  Mithridates  and  Tigranes,  the  greatest  monarchs  of 
Asia,  to  submit  to  the  Rom  -a  arms,  and  settled  the  dominion 
of  the  East.  At  the  he;id  of  his  victorious  legions,  he  did 
homage  to  the  laws  of  his  country,  resigned  his  authority  and 
again  became  a  private  citizen,  about  the  year  CO. 

The  subversion  of  Roman  liberty  under  Cesar,  we  have 
noticed,  also  the  glorious  reign  of  Augustus,  the  first  emperor ; 
the  fatal  effects  of  the  division  of  the  empire,  by  Constantine, 
and  the  final  overthrow  that  followed  the  loss  of  Roman  vir- 
tue, and  the  corruption  of  Roman  mariners. 

So  long  as  the  Roman  virtues  and  simplicity  of  manners 
remained,  so  long  Roman  wisdom  and  the  public  good,  sup- 
plied the  place  of  a  balance  of  power  in  the  government ;  the 
folly  of  the  populace,  was  controlled  by  the  wisdom  and  vir- 
tue of  the  senate,  and  the  energies  of  the  consuls,  supported 
the  glory  of  the  state.  When  Carthage  had  fallen,  and  with 
her  all  fears  of  ,\  rival  ;  when  the  wealth  and  luxury  of  Asia, 
with  the  refinements  of  Greece,  flowed  into  Rome,  and  cor- 
rupted her  manners  and  nfior.«l«,  by  changing  public  respect  • 
for  virtuous  povertv,into  the  admiration  of  licentious  wealth  ; 
then  money  supplanted  all  the  virtues,  bribery  and  corrup- 
tion followed,  the  folly  of  the  populace  overpowered  the 
wisdom  of  the  senate,  the  consular  energies  were  turned 
against  the  liberties  of  Rome,  Cesar  tri^ruphed  over  Pompey, 
and  this  mighty  government,  w:J  h  had  given  law  to  the 
,  fell  under  the  rod  of  a  despot. 


DESTRUCTION    Oi"    ROME.  -73 

Lome  in  the  midst  of  her  corruption  could  boast  of  her 
Cutulus,  Lentulus,  Cotta ;  her  Hortensius,  Calvus  and  Ci- 
cero  ;  her  Metellus,  and  Lucullus  ;  her  Pompey  and  Cato  ; 
but  her  virtue  was  gone,  her  morals  were  gone,  and  above 
all,  the  majesty  of  woman  was  gone  ;  the  smiles  or  the 
frowns  of  this  key  of  virtue,  no  longer  rewarded  the  pure 
and  controlled  the  corrupt.  With  the  fall  of  woman,  fell  the 
manners  of  Rome  ;  and  elegance,  purity  and  refinement, 
were  swallowed  up  in  luxury,  effeminacy,  dissipation  and 
corruption.  Wisdom,  eloquence,  manners  and  morals,  with 
the  Roman  virtues,  and  Roman  liberty,  all  fell  a  prey  to  all 
conquering  luxury,  and  corrupt  ambition,  in  regular  succes- 
sion, until  they  were  swallowed  up,  with  Rome  herself,  in 
the  deluge  of  northern  barbarism.  450, 


SKETCHES  OF 
UNIVERSAL  HISTORY. 


PART  SECOND, 

FROM  THE  REVOLUTION  OF    THE  WESTERN    ROMAN   EM- 
PIRE 410,  TO  THE  YEAR  1818  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA. 


CHAP.    I. 

Revolution  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  — character  of  the 
Barbarians — laws  of  division  and  tenure  of  their  spoil — 
character  of  the  Roman  Religion — Religion  of  the  Barbari- 
ans— character  of  the  dark  ages — origin  of  the  feudal  system. 

THE  luxuries  of  the  Roman  empire,  which  followed  their 
conquests  in  the  east,  with  all  their  train  of  effeminacy  and 
corruption,  swept  away  that  Roman  valor,  which  had  shone 
so  conspicuous  in  the  days  of  Fabius,  Scipio  and  Cesar,  and 
opened  the  way  for  the  subversion  of  the  western  empire, 
in  about  one  century  after  Constantine,  the  emperor,  removed 
the  government  to  Byzantium,  or  Constantinople. 

The  northern  barbarians,  who  inhabited  the  regions  of 
Germany,  Poland,  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway ;  (all 
then  one  vast  uncultivated  forest,  thinly  peopled  with  a  race 
of  men  in  a  state  of  nature,  much  like  the  Aborigines  of 
North  America,)  lived  wandering  liyes,  without  letters  and 
the  arts.  The  people  who  inhabited  Germany,  had  been 
harassed  by  the  Romans,  in  their  conquests  under  Julin-i 
CSsar,  and  treated  with  that  severity  the  Romans  were  ac- 
customed to  bestow  upon  such  barbarians  as  they  were  re- 
solved to  tame  to  their  submission. 

These  barbarians  took  advantage  of  this  weak  and  divided 
state  of  the  Roman  empire,  to  revenge  the  wrongs  which 
they  had  suffered  from  Roman  invasions,  and  began  their  de- 
predations in  the  year  410,  under  Alaric. 

One  success  encouraged  and  invited  another,  as  wave  fol- 
lows wave,  until  the  whole  northern  wilderness  was  in  mo 


I 


KOMAN    REVOLUTION.  75 

tion,  and  the  various  tribes  of  Goths,  Vandals,  Visigoths, 
Alans,  Suevi,  &c.  rushed  like  a  torrent  down  upon  the  Ro- 
mans, spreading  carnage,  desolation  and  destruction,  through 
the  finest  provinces. 

This  torrent  raged,  until  Attila  with  his  Huns,  from  the 
shores  of  the  Euxine  sen,  sacked  Rome,  overwhelmed  Italy, 
and  destroyed  every  vestige  of  the  Roman  government  in  the 
west,  together  with  the  arts  and  scienres,  manners  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Romans  ;  exterminated  the  Roman  population, 
and  planted  their  barbarous  hordes  upon  its  ruins. 

At  tiie  first  of  the  sixth  century,  the  Goths  and  Franks 
were  possessed  of  Gaul ;  the  Ostrogoths  and  Huns  of  Italy 
and  Pannonia  ;  the  Visigoths  of  Spain ,  and  the  Saxons  of 
Britain.  New  l.nvs,  languages,  manners,  customs,  dresses 
and  even  names  of  men,  things  and  countries,  produced  a  to- 
tal change  in  the  wrestern  Roman  empire. 

The  object  of  this  part  of  our  work,  is  to  shew  the  evils 
that  resulted  from  this  change  ;  and  the  ultimate  good  which 
has  resulted  from  those  evils  ;  and  to  unfold  the  wisdom  of 
the  divine  plan  in  subverting  the  despotic  idolatry  and  cor- 
ruption of  the  Roman  state,  to  open  the  way  for  the  religion 
of  the  gospel,  and  the  triumph  of  the  "  kingdom  of  the  stone, 
which  should  be  cut  out  of  the  mountain  without  hands,  be- 
come a  great  mountain  and  fill  the  whole  earth."  Daniel  ii. 
35,  3G. 

Terrible  as  was  this  revolution  in  its  ravages,  effects  and 
consequences  ;  it  has  long  been  well  understood,  that  the 
good  of  the  world  required  the  subversion  of  the  corrupt, 
bloody,  despotic  and  idolatrous  government  of  Rome,  al- 
though nothing,  but  a  special  miracle  of  God,  short  of  this 
northern  exterminating  revolution,  could  have  effected  the 
change. 

The  barbarians  treated  with  derision  and  contempt  every 
mark  of  Roman  splendor,  elegance  and  grandeur,  as  the  de- 
basing causes  which  rendered  the  Romans  so  easy  a  conquest, 
and  planted  their  own  barbarous  customs  upon  their  ruins,  as 
the  great  instruments  of  promoting  that  valour,  which  had  been 
the  immediate  cause  of  all  their  triumphs. 

To  enforce  this  contempt  upon  the  rising  generation,  they 
erected  a  cottage  upon  the  ruins  of  a  palace,  and  caused  the 
vanquished  to  be  fed  with  elegance,  while  they  partook  of 
their  rustic  fare,  in  their  rustic  form,  seated  upon  the  ground. 
The  religion  of  the  two  great  parties  was  idolatry  ;  but  dif>. 
fering  according  to  their  difference  of  refinement. 


76  JUPITER    AN»  WODEN. 

Jupiter,  the  god  of  the  Romans,  presided  over  the  universe, 
held  the  balances  of  events,  and  ruled  the  destinies  of  men  ; 
by  the  thunderbolts  of  heaven  enforced  obedience  to  his 
laws,  and  took  vengeance  on  his  enemies.  Mars,  one  ofthe 
lesser  deities,  wielded  the  sword  ;  rewarded  with  victory 
the  arm  of  the  valiant,  and  humbled  the  refractory,  avari- 
cious, licentious  and  effeminate,  as  trophies  of  the  victors ; 
whilst  Apollo,  the  god  of  wisdom,  directed  the  councils  of 
the  virtuous  and  wise. 

These,  with  a  host  of  others,  were  the  gods  of  the  Romans, 
bitt  Woden,  thegodof  the  barbarians,  was  a  god  of  vengeance, 
who  sanctioned  all  that  exterminating  malice,  which  blotted 
out  the  Roman  name  in  the  west  ;  presided  over  the  judicial 
combats  and  civil  wars,  which  drenched  Europe  in  blood, 
through  the  dark  ages,  of  nearly  1000  years  ;  until  ferocity 
itself  was  glutted  with  carnage  ;  and  the  sons  of  these  sires, 
under  the  benign  influence  of  the  gospel,  received  a  polish 
from  the  revival  of  letters  ;  and  savage  man,  was  again  en- 
robed in  humanity  from  the  improvement  of  those  arts,  which 
their  fathers  had  rendered  the  victims  of  their  vengeance, 
and  sacrificed  to  Woden  their  god. 

Although  popery  arose  out  of  this  tempestuous  sea  of  igno- 
rance and  barbarity;  yet  popery  with  all  its  corruptions,  was 
better  than  the  mythology  of  idolatrous  Rome  ;  it  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  display  of  the  angel  of  the  gospel  in  the  re- 
formation, under  the  immortal  Luther,  and  opened  the  way 
for  the  kingdom  ofthe  stone,  which  shall  fill  the  whole  earth, 
through  the  millennial  period,  and  consummate  to  man  all 
the  blessings  ofthe  future  promises. 

The  genius  of  tl\e  government  of  these  barbarians,  was 
liberty  and  equality  ;  he  who  was  most  alert  in  the  chase, 
most  hardy  in  toils,  and  most  valiant  in  war,  became  their 
chief  ;  and  this  was  common  to  all  the  clans.  Their  division 
of  conquest  and  plunder  was  by  lot,  according  to  their  differ- 
ent shares,  from  the  chief  to  the  soldier  ;  and  the  tenure  of 
their  property  was  a  tenure  of  force. 

One  example  may  serve  to  illustrate  this  fact.  "  When 
the  Franks,  hail  taken  a  large  silver  vase  from  a  certain 
church,  a  petition  was  sent  to  Clovis,  their  chief,  that  he 
would  restore  that  silver  vessel  to  its  sacred  use.  When 
they  were  about  to  divide  the  spoil,  Clovis  requested  that 
that  vase  might  be  given  to  him  separately,  before  the  di- 
vision ;  to  which  all  consented,  but  one  soldier,  who  struck 


FEUDAL    SYSTEM.  T\ 

the  vase  with  his  war  club,  and  exclaimed,  ;-  there  shall  be 
no  division  here  but  by  lot  ;"  and  it  was  conclusive. 

In  this  state  of  things,  property  became  a  curse  instead  of  a 
ble-ssing  ;  the  weak  with  their  shares  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the 
strong  ;  this  led  the  common  people  to  the  chiefs  for  justice 
and  protection,  who  in  their  turn  seized  on  their  estates, 
when  it  suited  their  humor,  or  interest  ;  others,  to  avoid 
these  distresses,  yielded  up  their  shares  to  the  chiefs  for 
protection,  and  became  their  vassals.  Thus  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  things,  the  chiefs  obtained  what  they  could  not  pro- 
tect, for  the  want  of  legal  and  coercive  power,  to  restrain 
such  a  state  of  weakness,  licentiousness  and  anarchy. 

The  same  acts  of  violence  and  oppression,  which  destroy^ 
eel  the  liberties,  persons  and  properties  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, were  common  among  the  chiefs  ;  these  made  war  an  ' 
committed  depredations  upon  each  other,  as  suited  their  lusts> 
ambition  or  resentments  ;  this  led  them  to  the  king  for  re- 
dress ;  his  decisions,  and  the  common  safety,  administered  a 
partial  remedy  for  a  time  ;  but  the  chiefs  exercised  the  most 
despotic  sway  over  their  subjects  ;  they  were  considered  and 
held,  as  the  property  of  the  chiefs  upon  their  estates  ;  were 
bought  and  sold  like  cattle,  either  separately  or  collectively, 
with  estates,  and  even  matrimony  and  their  children  were  at 
the  disposal  of  the  lords.  This  gave  rise  to,  and  supported 
the  system  of  government,  called  the  feudal  system. 

This  was  the  military  system  which  subjected  the  property 
of  the  chief  with  all  their  vassals,  to  cLe  controul  of  the  king, 
for  the  defence  of  the  nation,  and  the  public  weal. — This 
system  became  common  to  all  these  clans  or  kingdoms  ;  was 
the  source  ot  all  their  horrors,  through  the  dark  ages,  and 
from  which  they  all  emerged  by  the  same  causes,  and  pro- 
gressed up  to  their  present  state  of  civil  refinement. 


CHAP.  II, 


dovis — character  of  his  reign — distracted  state  of  the  Franks 
— Mayors  of  the  palace — rei^i  of  Pepin — Charles  Martel 
— Leavigild — Ecclesiastical  power — Mahomet — Saracens — 
situation  of  Spain. 

IN  our  first  part,  we  touched  upon  the  origin  of  the  Franks, 


78  CLOVIS     AND    CLOTILDA. 

under  Pharamond  and  Clovis,  sufficiently  to  shew  the  con- 
nection, which  laid  the  foundation,  as  well  as  future  support 
of  the  papal  throne.  We  noticed  that  Pharamond  led  his 
Franks  out  of  Germany,  over  the  Rhine,  and  settled  in  Gaul ; 
which  was  at  this  time  shared  by  the  Romans,  the  Gauls,  Vi- 
sigoths, and  Burgundi. 

Clovis,  his  successor,  at  nineteen  years  of  age,  obtained  a 
decided  victory  over  Syagrius,  a  Roman  despot,  and  estab- 
lished the  kingdom  of  the  Franks  486.  He  secured  the  fruits 
of  this  victory  by  his  marriage  with  Clotilda,  niece  of  Gonda- 
baud,  king  of  Burgundy,  and  thereby  opened  a  way  through 
the  pious  instrumentality  of  the  queen,  of  winning  the  affec- 
tions of  the  Gauls,  by  favouring  their  bishops,  and  flattering 
their  religion  ;  and  actually  led  all  his  people  into  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  by  his  own  example. 

Clevis,  through  the  instrumentality  of  Clotilda,  was  bap- 
tized by  the  bishop  of  Rheims  in  49G,  and  the  whole  nation 
followed  his  example. 

Clovis,  like  his  queen,  was  a  catholic  ;  but  the  Visigoths 
and  Burgundians  were  Arians  ;  this  opened  the  way  for  Clo- 
vis tomalie  the  most  of  his  religion  ;  and  under  the  sanction 
of  the  Gallic  clergy,  who  were  catholics,  he  drew  his  sword 
upon  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  and  by  a  desperate  battle 
near  Poictiers,  expelled  Alaric,  and  added  the  province  of 
Aquitaine  to  his  kingdom. 

The  religion  of  Clovis,  like  all  other  religions  of  policy, 
convenience  or  interest,  without  the  feelings  and  sincerity  of 
the  heart,  sunk  under  the  full  tide  of  his  successes,  and  he 
fell  a  prey  to  dissipation,  perfidy,  licentiousness  and  cruelty. 
Clovis  exhibited  one  more  specimen  of  a  corrupt  religion, 
which  has  been  followed  by  thousands,  and  tens  of  thousands 
of  apostates,  from  that  day  to  this  ;  he  attempted  to  atone  for 
his  corruptions  and  cruelties,  at  his  death,  by  building  and 
endowing  churches  and  religious  cloisters,  and  attempting  to 
regulate  church  discipline,  which  might  restrain  the  licen- 
tious hereafter. 

The  kingdom  of  Clovis  was  founded  upon  the  rights  of  con- 
quest and  a  corrupt  religion  ;  and  upon  his  death,  passed  un- 
der the  dominion  of  his  four  sons,  which  laid  the  foundation 
for  all  the  horrors  of  those  barbarous  murders,  assassinations 
and  cruelties,  which  followed  ;  until  Clotair,  by  the  death  of 
the  others,  again  united  the  crown  of  France,  and  transmitted 
it  to  his  four  sons,  in  562, 


CHILPERIC    AND    FREDEGONDA.  7$ 

rors  of  the  first  division,  had  taught  nothing  from 
experience,  to  this  barbarous  age  :  and  the  consequences  re- 
sulting from  the  second,  were  more  fatal  than  those  of  the 
first.  The  barbarities  and  cruelties  of  these  murderous 
scenes,  were  greatly  increased  by  the  vindictive  malice  of  the 
two  rival  queens,  Brunechilda  and  Fredegonda,  who  made 
every  form  of  treachery  subservient  to  their  passions  of  ri- 
valry and  dominion  ;  until  the  princes  were  all  exterminated, 
and  France  again  united  under  Clotair  II.  son  of  Chilperic 
and  Fredegonda,  in  613. 

He  restored  tranquillity  by  laying  aside  his  ambition,  insti- 
tuting a  new  office  of  the  nature  of  viceroy,  called  mayor  of 
the  palace  ;  who  governed  with  an  influence  much  like  the 
prime  ministers  of  the  courts  of  Europe  at  this  day.  In  this 
capacity  Pepin,  duke  of  Austratia,  governed  France  twenty- 
eight  years.  Pepin  died  in  656,  and  left  his  authority  to 
Plectrude,  his  widow,  who  became  regent  in  office  to  her 
grandson,  then  an  infant  who  was  created  mayor. 

Charles  Martel,  natural  son  of  Pepin,  was  imprisoned  by 
Plectrude,  to  suppress  his  ambition.  Charles  escaped  her 
power,  seized  on  the  mayorality  of  Austratia,  and  the  people 
supported  his  claims  ;  and  in  capacity  of  Duke  of  France, 
governed  France,  732. 

I/pon  an  invasion  of  the  Saracens,  he  repelled  them  by  a 
desperate  battle,  and  compelled  them  to  take  refuge  in  Spain. 
His  son  Pepin  succeeded  to  the  government,  assumed  the 
title  of  king,  to  the  utter  exclusion  of  the  descendants  of  Clo- 
vis,  or  the  Merovingian  race,  and  was  crowned  and  anointed 
king,  by  St.  Boniface,  bishop  of  Mentz,  in  752. 

Daring  these  operations  in  France,  the  Visigoths  founded 
a  kingdom  in  Spain,  upon  the  ruins  of  a  part  of  the  kingdoms 
of  the  Vandals  and  Suevi.  There  the  powers  of  the  clergy 
soon  surpassed  the  powers  of  the  kings,  they  introduced  a 
spiritual  tyranny  into  Spain  ;  the  bishops  became  the  judges, 
and  when  united  with  the  nobles,  held  the  crown  at  their  dis- 
posal. 

Under  this  order  of  things,  Spain  was  a  theatre  of  in- 
trigues, assassinations,  crimes,  bigotry,  cruelty  and  blood. — 
Leovigild,  the  champion  of  Spain,  who  subdued  the  Suevi, 
put  to  death  his  son  Hermenegild,  because  he  was  a  catholic, 
and  would  not  become  an  Arian.  This  persecution  between 
the  Catholics  and  Arians,  extended  to  the  Jews,  who  were 


80  CRUELTIES    IN    SFAlN. 

compelled  to  receive  baptism  upon  pain  of  death,  In  the 
reign  of  Sisebut,  one  of  the  successors  of  Leovigild.  He 
subdued  the  Visigoths,  added  all  Spain  to  his  dominions  with 
some  part  of  Gaul,  and  Mauritania.  Chintilla,  his  successor, 
banished  the  Jews,  and  enforced  with  rigor  all  the  laws  against 
that  people. 

Under  the  succeeding  reign,  the  bishops,  with  the  palatines, 
or  great  officers  of  the  crown,  assumed  the  election  of  the 
kings  to  the  exclusion  of  the  nobility,  and  they  declared 
Wamba,  (the  champion  of  Spain  against  the  Saracejas,)  to  be 
excluded  from  the  throne,  because  he  had  worn  the  habit  of 
a  penitent,  when  labouring  under  the  effects  of  poison  ;  and 
at  the  same  time  they  decreed  the  penalty  of  damnation  to , 
any  king,  who  should  marry  a  king's  widow. 

A  civil  war  sprang  up  in  the  reign  of  Witiza,  in  consequence 
of  the  debauchery  and  corruptions  of  this  prince,  who  was 
dethroned  by  Roderique,  in  710  ;  he  in  his  turn,  fell  a  sac- 
rifice to  those  Saracens,  whose  rise,  progress,  and  conquests 
we  noticed  in  the  first  part,  under  Mahomet,  the  apostate 
apostle  of  Mecca,  in  Arabia.  This  invasion  was  imputed  to 
the  intrigues  of  Count  Julian,  to  revenge  on  Roderique  the 
dishonour  he  had  occasioned  his  injured  daughter.  This 
insult  divided  and  distracted  Spain,  and  rendered  the  con- 
quest of  the  Saracens  easy  and  permanent. 

Appas,  archbishop  of  Seville,  joined  the  Saracens,  to  re- 
venge the  insult  ;  butPaleologus,  a  prince  of  the  royal  blood 
fled  to  the  mountains  of  Asturias,  and  founded  a  Christian 
kingdom  which  he  transmitted  to  his  posterity,  717. 

The  wretched  government  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  was 
bent  upon  nothing  but  avarice,  and  plunder  ;  this,  together 
with  their  civil  wars,  rendered  Spain  the  theatre  of  crimes, 
wretchedness,  strife,  carnage  and  usurpation  ;  in  the  midst  of 
these  struggles,  the  Mahometan  religion  triumphed  over  the 
Christian  ;  and  a  bloody  revolution  in  the  superior  mahome- 
tan  sects  established  the  triumph,  and  dominion  of  the  sect 
of  the  Abassides,  over  the  Amiades,  and  settled  the  usurpa- 
tions of  Spain. 

At  this  time,  Abdurrahmon,  or  Almanzor  the  great,  fixed 
the  Saracen  government  at  Cordova,  as  his  capital,  and  ren- 
dered it  the  theatre  of  the  arts,  of  elegance,  and  pleasure  ;. 
and  by  depriving  the  bishops  of  their  power,  with  their  liv- 
ings, and  by  promoting  intermarriage3-  between  the  different 


KINGDOM    OF    ALMANSOR.  81 

sects,  he  rooted  out  Christianity,  without  violence  ;  and  led 
all  parties  into  new  scenes  of  luxury,  excesses  and  pleasures, 
together  with  elegance  and  refinement  of  manners,  which 
shone  with  the  more  brilliance  and  splendor,  in  the  midst  of 
the  thick  darkness,  of  ignorance,  superstition,  and  barbar- 
ism, which  surrounded  them. 

We  have  thus  paved  the  way  for  a  correct  knowledge  of 
the  successive  events,  which  followed  upon  this  dark,  and 
distressing  theatre  of  Europe  ;  a  theatre  pregnant  with  events 
more  horrid,  vile  and  corrupt,  than  ever  before  blackened 
the  history  of  man  ;  a  theatre  on  which  ignorance,  bigotry 
and  superstition,  commixed  with  ambition,  avarice  and  lust  of 
domination,  aided  with  all  the  concomitant  vices,  in  the  ex- 
treme, with  all  the  distressing  evils  and  calamities  which  fol- 
lowed in  their  train,  reigned  triumphant,  and  rendered  it 
one  successive  tragedy  of  carnage  and  blood,  for  more  than 
one  thousand  years  :  the  effects  of  which  still  remain,  and 
continue  to  distract  this  devoted  country  ;  even  down  to  these 
later  ages  of  the  world  ;  and  amidst  all  the  improvements 
of  religion,  literature,  jurisprudence,  the  arts,  and  civil  re- 
finement. 


CHAP.     III. 

General  affairs  of  Italy — rise  of  Popery— Pcpin  supports  the 
Pope — state  of  Britain — origin  of  the  Anglo  Saxons — Wit- 
tenagemot,  or  elective  government. 

ITALY  was  now  divided  between  the  emperors  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  the  Lombards,  or  Longobards  ;  and  opened  a 
field  for  ambitious  wars  :  these,  the  folly  ofthe  emperor  Leo 
Isauricus,  soon  gave  rise  to,  by  attempting  to  abolish  the  wor- 
ship of  images,  in  Italy,  as  he  had  done  in  the  eastern  em- 
pire :  this  inflamed  the  populace  at  Ravenna,  against  the  ex- 
arch, when  he  began  to  pull  down  the  images,  and  caused  an 
insurrection. 

Luitprand,  king  of  the  Lombards,  (a  race  of  Goths  who  ex- 
pelled the  Ostrogoths  from  Italy,)  seized  this  favourable  mo- 
ment to  extend  his  dominions,  marched  to  Ravenna,  laid 
siege  to,  and  took  it  by  storm,  ..nd  gave  it  up  with  all  its  goth- 
ic  wealth,  to  the  plunder  of  his  army,  in  728.  This  struck  a 


82  LEO,  LUITPRAND,  AND  GREGORY  II. 

general  terror  into  the  cities  of  Italy,  and  they  submitted  to 
Luitprand. 

The  edict  of  Leo  the  emperor,  against  image  worship,  (to- 
gether with  the  overwhelming  power  of  Luitprand,)  alarmed 
the  bishop  of  Rome,  then  Gregory  II.  ;  he  applied  to  Ursus, 
duke  of  Venice,  for  assistance  ;  who  accepted  the  overture, 
equipped  a  fleet,  put  the  exarch  of  Ravenna,  (who  had  fled  to 
Venice  for  succour,)  at  its  head,  and  recovered  Ravenna,  in 
the  absence  of  Luitprand. 

Enraged  at  this  step  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  Leo  the  empe- 
ror recalled  the  exarch,  sent  a  successor,  with  orders  to  de- 
stroy the  bishop,  or  seize  him,  and  send  him  in  chains  to  Con- 
stantinople. 

Here  commenced  the  struggle  that  fixed  the  papal  power. 
Gregory  II.  excommunicated  the  new  exarch  ;  Luitprand 
turned  his  arms  to  the  assistance  of  the  pope;  the  citizens 
of  Ravenna  rose,  murdered  the  exarch,  and  all  his  abettors, 
or  image  breakers  ;  the  duke  of  Naples  shared  the  same  fate  ; 
and  the  citizens  of  Rome  rallied  round  the  pope,  and  with- 
drew their  allegiance  from  the  emperor  Leo,  in  730. 

Fired  with  indignation  at  this  outrage  on  his  authority,  the 
emperor  sent  a  powerful  army  into  Italy  to  subdue  the  reb- 
els. The  pope  at  the  same  time  sought  aid  from  France,  and 
sent  ambassadors  to  Charles  Martel,  who  gladly  received 
them,  and  became  the  protector  of  the  church,  in  731. 

During  these  preparations,  Gregory  II.  died,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Gregory  III.  The  emperor  Leo  died  soon  after, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  ConstantineCopronymus,  who 
followed  the  steps  of  his  father.  In  741,  died  Charles  Mar- 
tel, who  was  succeeded  by  Pepin  ;  and  also  Gregory  III. 
w^ho  was  succeeded  by  Zachary.  Luitprand  resigned  to 
Zachary  all  the  cities  taken  from  the  Roman  see,  and  he  died, 
in  743,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rachis,  who  confirmed  the 
peace  with  Zachary  ;  but  soon  broke  it  and  invaded  the 
Roman  states. 

Instead  of  drawing  the  sword,  the  pope  w7ent  in  person  to 
the  crimp  of  Rachis,  and  by  his  address,  persuaded  him  to 
sheath  his  sword,  renounce  his  crown,  do  him  homage  as  his 
spiritual  father,  and  retire  to  a  convent  in  the  habit  of  St. 
Benedict,  in  750.  By  the  influence  of  Zachary,  Pepin,  may- 
or of  the  palace  of  France,  was  raised  to  the  throne,  and 
anointed  king  by  St.  Boniface,  bishop  ofMentz,in  752. 

Thus  was  laid  the   foundation  of  the  papal  throne  ;  the 


ZACHARY    AND    PEPI>'.  83 

succeeding  narrative  will  show,  how  the  stupendous  super- 
structure was  raised.  Astulphus  the  successor  of  Rachis  in 
Lombardy,  aimed  at  the  dominion  of  Italy,  he  subdued  Raven- 
na and  Pentapolis  ;  marched  towards  Rome,  and  demanded 
the  submission  of  all  the  dukedom.  This  alarmed  Stephen 
111.  then  upon  the  papal  throne,,  and  he  again  applied  to 
France  for  relief. 

Pepin,  now  firmly  seated  on  the  throne  of  Clovis,  sent 
two  ambassadors  to  conduct  his  holiness  into  France,  where 
he  concluded  a  treaty  ;  Stephen  anointed  Pepin  anew,  with 
holy  unction,  and  his  two  sons,  Charles  and  Carloman — de- 
claring each  of  them  Romanorum  Patricius  ;  and  Pepin,  in 
return,  guaranteed  Ravenna  and  Pentapolis,  to  the  pope  or 
holy  see,  marched  his  army  into  Italy  ;  compelled  Astulphus 
to  restore  his  conquests,  established  the  pope  in  the  chair, 
and  returned  into  France. 

When  the  rod  was  withdrawn,  Astulphus  again  invaded  the 
papal  dominions  ;  and  Pepin,  upon  renewed  solicitations  from 
the  pope,  again  marched  his  army  into  Italy,  and  restored 
tlie  sovereignty  of  the  pope,  and  Astulphus  again  took  refuge 
in  Pavia.  Alarmed  at  this  state  of  events  in  Italy,  the  empe- 
ror Constantine,  applied  by  his  ambassadors,  to  Pepin,  for  a 
restoration  of  the  exarchate,  and  Pentapolis,  to  the  empire  ; 
to  which  Pepin  replied,  "  that  it  had  belonged  to  the  Lombards 
by  the  laws  of  conquest,  that  it  belonged  to  him  by  the  same 
right,  and  that  under  his  authority  he  had  given  it  to  St.  Peter, 
to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  catholic  faith,  and  this  he  was 
ready  to  seal  with  the  last  drop  of  his  blood." 

Pepin  pressed  Astulphus  in  Pavia,  by  a  close  siege,  and 
compelled  him  for  his  own  safety,  to  relinquish  all  his  con- 
quests, and  put  the  pope  in  possession  of  Commachio,  the 
strong  fortress  of  Italy.  Pepin  conferred  upon  pope  Steph- 
en, and  his  successors,  forever,  the  exarchate,  Pentapolis, 
(now  Maca  D'Ancona,)  Emilia,  (now  Romagna,)  with  all 
the  cities  therein,  retaining  only  the  ideal  superiority  of 
Patricius  Romanorum,  (or  protector  of  the  Roman  people.) 
Thus  the  keys  and  sceptre  were  united  to  the  papal  chair  by 
Pepin,  who  died  in  768,  in  the  fifty-fourth  year  of  his  age, 
and  seventeenth  of  his  reign,  and  left  his  kingdom  to  his  two 
sons,  Charles  and  Carloman. 

We  have  now  brought  forward  the  kingdoms  of  France, 
Spain  and  Italy,  to  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Charle- 


84  ROMANS    AND    BRITONS. 

magne,  we  will  now  bring  forward  the  kingdom  of  England 
to  the  same  period. 

The  Romans  held  possession  of  Britain  from  the  invasion 
of  Julius  Cesar,  (fifty  years  before  Christ)  to  the  invasion  of 
the  Roman  empire  by  the  northern  nations  400,  about  five 
centuries.  No  instance  occurs  on  the  page  of  history,  of  a 
people  so  brave,  that  have  been  so  much  harassed  as  the  Bri 
tons.  When  the  Romans  had  withdrawn  their  legions  for 
their  own  defence,  the  divided  state  of  Britain  again  opened 
the  scenes  of  discord,  rapine,  and  war  ;  they  again  applied  for 
aid  to  the  Romans,  and  again  rebuilt  the  Roman  wall  of  Anto- 
nius,  between  the  Friths  of  Forth,  and  Clyde,  to  check  the 
ravages  of  the  Picts  and  Scots.  Who  these  daring  adventur- 
ers descended  from,  is  no  more  known,  than  who  the  Irish 
or  Britons  descended  from  ;  doubtless  all  from  the  stock  of 
Japhet,  under  different  leaders,  the  same  as  the  nations  on 
the  continent. 

During  the  ravages  of  Attilla,  with  his  Huns,  in  the  Roman 
empire,  the  Picts  and  Scots  took  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  the  Roman  legions,  crossed  the  Frith  of  Forth,  and  broke 
over  the  wall  ;  laying  waste  the  country  with  fire  and  sword. 
The  wretched  Britons  addressed  a  letter  to  their  former 
masters,  (the  Romans,)  for  aid,  in  this  style,  "  Driven  by  the 
barbarians  into  the  sea,  and  forced  by  the  sea  back  upon  the 
barbarians  ;  we  know  not  which  way  to  turn  from  the  choice 
of  two  deaths."  The  Romans  could  give  them  no  assistance, 
and  left  them  to  the  consolation  of  that  Christian  religion, 
which  they  had  embraced  long  before. 

Driven  to  despair  by  these  barbarous  savages,  some  who 
escaped  the  sword,  fled  into  Gaul,  and  settled  a  province, 
which  they  called  Britanny  ;  some  submitted  to  the  con- 
querors, some  fled  into  the  woods  and  mountains,  where 
they  dwelt  secure,  and  often  sallied  forth  upon  the  foe,  and 
took  desperate  revenge  for  the  wrongs  they  had  suffered, 

Thus  harassed  and  distressed,  they  invited  over  the  Sax- 
ons, from  the  heart  of  Germany,  to  secure  the  peace  of  the 
Island.  These  people  sprang  from  what  is  now  called  Jut- 
land, and  had  acquired  by  conquest,  the  greater  part  of  Ger- 
many, together  with  Holland  and  Zealand.  Flushed  with 
the  successes  of  their  arms,  they  readily  obeyed  the  call,  and 
sent  a  small  fleet,  with  about  1500  troops,  under  the  com- 
mand of  two  brother  chiefs,  Hengis  and  Horsa,  descendants 
of  their  god  Woden,  in  450. 


BRITONS    AlFb    SAX6N8.  85 

Sritons  hailed  them  as  their  deliverers  ;  and  soon  saw 
the  frets  and  Scots  driven  again  into  their  native  wilds.  In- 
terest is  the  ruling  passion  in  the  heart  of  man  ;  the  Britons 
rejoiced  to  see  themselves  freed  from  the  Picts  and  Scots  ; 
the  Saxons  rejoiced  to  find  how  easy  a  conquest  such  a  peo 
pie  as  the  Britons,  might  become  to  their  arms. 

Pleased  with  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  they  sent  to  their 
brethren  to  come  over  and  join  in  the  conquest  of  the  Isl- 
and :  this  they  readily  accepted,  and  a  strong  force  embark- 
ed, and  landed  in  Britain  ;  here  opened  a  scene  too  horrible 
to  relate  ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  after  a  succession  of  severe, 
and  desperate  conflicts,  the  Britons  were  not  only  subdued, 
but  almost  exterminated ;  and  the  Saxons  became  masters 
•f  the  island  ;  until  prince  Arthur  arose  ;  he  gave  relief  to 
such  of  his  countrymen  as  had  escaped  the  murderous  sword, 
and  fled  to  the  mountains  and  forests  for  safety  ;  collected 
a  band  of  these  fugitives,  fell  upon  the  Saxons  at  Badon 
Hill,  in  520,  and  gained  such  a  victory,  as  gave  relief  to  the 
Britons  about  forty  years.  Fresh  invaders  having  passed 
over  from  Germany,  from  time  to  time,  and  the  Britons  were 
finally  subdued  ;  excepting  such  as  fled  to  the  mountains  of 
Cornwall  and  Wales,  where  they  dwelt  securely  under  their 
own  governments,  584. 

As  soon  as  the  common  enemy  was  subdued,  the  Saxons 
divided  the  country  into  seven  independent  sovereignties, 
railed  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  united  under  one  head  ;  these 
held  a  general  elective  council,  called  Wittenagemot,  or  gen- 
eral assembly,  to  consult,  and  determine  on  the  affairs  of  the 
general  good. 

CHAP.  III.  Continued. 

THE  Saxon  heptarchy  was  the  basis  on  which  the  laws  of 
England,  and  of  course,  English  and  American  liberty,  were 
founded.  Their  Wittenagemot,  or  council  of  wise  men,  was 
composed  of  a  select  number  from  all  the  clans  or  kingdoms  ; 
of  what  class  or  order  of  men  is  not  known.  Their  divisions 
into  classes,  were  the  same  as  in  England  at  this  time,  the 
noble,  the  free,  and  the  servile.  The  nobles  were  called 
thanes,  and  were  of  two  kinds,  the  greater  and  lesser  thanes  ; 
both  were  dependent  on  the  king  ;  the  free  men  wrere  the 
yeomanry,  or  farmers  of  the  realm ;  but  the  slaves  were 

8 


86  BRITONS    AND    SAXONS. 

the  most  numerous,  and  were  tlae  property  upon  the  estates 
of  the  nobles. 

The  basis  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  laws,  was  the  same  as  the 
present  English,  excepting  the  decision  of  ordeal  in  very  in- 
tricate cases.*  Their  criminal  code  was  more  mild  than  the 
present  English  ;  all  crimes  might  be  compensated  with 
money.  This  principle  became  the  basis  of  the  corruptions 
of  popery.  This  heptarchy  continued  until  they  were  united 
under  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  in  827  ;  but  it  was  an  union 
both  transient  and  momentary. 

The  heptarchy  were  converted  to  Christianity  by  St.  Au- 
gustine, a  catholic  monk,  about  the  year  600.  Reverences 
to  saints  and  monastic  observances,  were  amongst  the  first 
of  their  moral  virtues  ;  and  donations  to  the  church,  atoned 
for  all  crimes.  These  superstitions  brought  them  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Roman  pontiffs,  and  pilgrimages  to  Rome 
were  common  to  all  classes  of  society,  from  the  king  to  the 
peasant. 

Upon  this  throne  of  the  united  heptarchy  reigned  Egbert, 
after  severe  struggles  for  dominion,  and  after  he  had  by  his 
sword  persuaded  the  Saxons  that  he  was  the  rightful  heir  to 
Henghis  and  Horsa,  the  two  first  chiefs  who  led  the  Saxons 
into  England.  The  reign  of  Egbert  was  rendered  distress- 
ing and  alarming  by  the  invasions  of  the  Normans,  who 
ravaged  the  country,  as  the  Danes  had  done  before.  In  the 
midst  of  these  scenes,  Egbert  died,  838,  and  left  his  throne 
to  his  son  Ethelwolf.  His  superstition  was  equal  to  the 
weakness  of  his  mind  ;  in  his  reign,  England  was  again  dis- 
tressed by  the  ravages  of  the  Danes  ;  and  in  the  midst  of 
these  distresses,  the  |dng  went  off  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome, 
and  on  his  return  died,  leaving  the  throne  to  his  sons,  Ethel- 
bert  and  Ethelbald. 

The  Danes  still  continued  their  ravages,  and  distracted  this 
divided  kingdom,  until  both  the  kings  died,  and  left  the  crown 
to  their  younger  brother  Alfred,  at  twenty  years  of  age.  This 
young  hero  did  wronders  ;  but  was  soon  ov  rpowered,  after 
having  fought  eight  pitched  battles  in  one  year  ;  V  ^  ,vas  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  crown,  take  the  garb  of  a  peasant,  and  pass 
as  a  servant  to  a  grazier.  Not  content  with  this  situation,  he 
built  him  a  strong  castle  in  the  midst  of  an  inaccessible  mo- 
rass ;  collected  a  few  of  his  nobles,  and  when  occasion  offer- 
ed, fell  upon  the  defenceless  Danes  without  mercy. 

*  The  ordeal  of  fire  and  sword  was  common  to  the  Saxons  in  the 


ALFRED    THE    GREAT,  87 

Thus  immured,  like  Gustavus  of  Sweden,  he  reconnoiter- 
the  Danes  in  their  camp,  and  encouraged  his  countrymen, 
mtil  a  favorable  moment  offered,  when  he  fell  upon  the 
)anish  camp  at  Eddington,  routed  their  army,  put  them  to 
flight,  with  great  slaughter  ;  took  Guthrum  their  king,  with 
the  remnant  of  his  banditti,  and  offered  them  their  lives,  and 
land  to  work  upon,  if  they  would  embrace  Christianity,  and 
be  loyal  subjects  ;  these  they  consented  to,  and  were  true  to 
their  engagements. 

Although  Egbert  may  be  considered  as  the  first  king,  under 
the  Saxon  union,  his  reign  was  so  short,  that  he  had  only  the 
name  of  king  ;  never  did  he  enjoy  a  tranquil  throne  ;  every 
thing  remained  for  Alfred  to  do,  when  he  came  to  the  throne, 
and  he  was  exactly  fitted  for  his  condition  ;  he  did  every 
thing  for  that  nation,  in  one  conspicuous  reign. 

He  subdued  the  Danes,  he  created  a  fleet  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty  vessels,  which  was  equal  to  the  protection  of  his 
sea  coast ;  established  a  regular  police  throughout  his  king- 
dom, by  dividing  England  into  counties,  hundreds,  and  ty th- 
ings ;  and  rendered  every  householder  accountable  for  his 
family  and  guests  ;  every  person  who  did  not  register  himself 
in  some  tything,  was  punished  as  an  outlaw  ;  and  no  man 
could  change  his  abode  without  a- certificate  from  the  head  of 
the  tything. 

Alfred  created  county  courts,  and  juries,  in  the  manner 
they  are  now  used  in  England  and  America,  and  assembled 
his  whole  people  once  a  year,  by  their  hundreds,  not  only  to 
inquire  into,  and  correct  crimes,  but  also  all  abuses  of  power 
in  the  magistrates,  and  at  the  same  time  to  do  military  duty  ; 
hence  a  hundred  was  called  a  Wappentake.  Alfred  framed 
also  a"  body  of  laws,  which  were  the  basis  of  English  jurispru- 
dence. 

He  was  sensible  that  ignorance  was  the  hot-bed  of  mischief, 
and  that  without  knowledge,  it  was  impossible  for  any  people 
to  be  free,  virtuous  and  happy. 

Alfred  founded  schools  and  seminaries  \  greatly  endowed 
the  university  of  Oxford  ;  enjoined  it  upon  all  freeholders, 
to  send  their  children  to  school  ;  and  encouraged  merit  by 
preferment.  He  studied,  wrote,  and  practised,  as  he  wished 
his  people  to  do,  and  thus  by  precept  and  example,  was  truly 
the  father  of  his  country.  He  introduced  and  encouraged 
manufactures  and  commerce  ;  lived  to  enjoy  the  elegancies 


88 


ALFRED  THE  GREAT. 


and  luxuries  of  life,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  all  that  is  truly 
great  and  good  in  England. 

In  the  year  901,  Alfred  died,  (having  fought  fifty-six  pitch- 
ed battles,  by  land  and  sea,)  and  left  in  his  will,  "  It  is  just 
that  the  English  should  ever  remain  as  free  as  their  own 
thoughts."  The  real  worth,  and  true  greatness  of  Alfred, 
are  best  known  and  expressed,  by  the  general  good  which  has 
been  experienced  in  the  English  nation. 

To  avoid  interruption  in  the  Saxon  history,  I  have  contin- 
ued through  the  reign  of  Alfred  ;  which  brings  it  forward  of 
the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  nearly  one  whole  century.  We 
will  now  go  back,  and  take  up  the  affairs  of  the  continent, 
beginning  with  Charlemagne,  king  of  the  Franks,  and  empe- 
ror of  the  west. 

In  the  reign  of  Pepin,  we  noticed  the  holy  consecration  of 
his  two  sons,  Charles  and  Carloman,  by  pope  Stephen,  as 
protectors  of  the  Roman  people.  Soon  after  the  death  of 
Pepin,  died  his  son  Carloman,  and  left  Charles  sole  heir  to 
the  crown,  in  771.  The  Saxons  had  made  a  general  con- 
quest of  the  clans  which  were  spread  over  Germany,  and 
held  them  in  subjection,  after  the  manner  of  the  age  ;  where 
subjection  and  obedience  were  enforced  by  the  sword  only, 
and  where  ravaging  and  plunder  were  the  common  modes  of 
subsisting,  amongst  a  set  of  pagan  idolatrous  barbarians,  much 
like  our  western  Indians. 

To  quiet  the  depredations  of  some  of  these  tribes,  became 
the  early  attention  of  Charles,  when  he  was  called  by  pope 
Adrian  I.  to  protect  his  holiness  against  the  incursions  of  De- 
aiderius  king  of  the  Lombards,  in  the  same  manner  that  his 
father  Pepin  had  done  against  Luitprand.  Charles  had  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Desiderius,  divorced  her  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  pope,  as  being  without  issue,  and  married  another 
woman.  This  had  given  some  occasion  fer  the  quarrel  be- 
tween Desiderius  and  the  pope  ;  and  a  serious  cause  of  quar- 
rel between  Desiderius  and  Charles. 

Upon  the  first  summons  from  Adrian,  Charles  concluded  a 
rreaty  with  the  Saxons,  drew  off  his  army,  and  marched  into 
Italy  in  quest  of 'Desiderius,  who  fled  at  his  approach,  and 
took  shelter  in  Pavia,  his  capital,  where  Charles  besieged 
him,  773.  The  Lombards  made  a  gallant  defence,  Charles 
invested  the  city  with  a  part  of  his  army,  drew  off  the  other 
part  and  marched  to  Verona,  which  soon  fell  into  his  hands, 
together  with  his  brother  Carloman's  widow,  (who  was  also 


CHARLEMAGNE.  39 


daughter  to  Desiderius,)  with  h<*r  two  sons,  who  had  been 
sent  there  by  her  father  for  safety ;  these  Charles  sent  into 
France,  and  returned  to  Pavia  ;  renewed  the  siege  with  vig- 
or, and  went  in  person  to  Rome  to  pass  the  Easter  festival. 

Adrian  received  Charles  with  great  pomp,  preceded  by  the 
magistrates  and  judges  of  Rome,  with  banners  ;  and  the  ex- 
ultations of  the  clergy  "  Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord."  Charles  being  fully  gratified  with  this 
reception  at  Rome,  confirmed  again  the  grant  of  Pepin,  and 
retired  to  Pavia,  which  a  severe  plague  amongst  the  besieg- 
ed soon  compelled  them  to  deliver  up  to  Charles,  who  took 
Desiderius  and  his  family,  and  sent  them  into  France  ;  where 
they  all  died.  Thus  an  end  was  put  to  the  kingdom  of  the 
Lombards,  774  ;  after  a  period  of  206  years. 

Italy  at  this  time  was  shared  by  the  Venitians,  the  Lom- 
bards, the  Popes,  and  the  Emperors  of  Constantinople.  After 
the  conquest  of  Lombard}',  it  was  all  owned  by  the  Pope,  and 
Charles,  excepting  the  dukedom  of  Naples,  and  several  cities 
in  the  two  Calabrias,  which  belonged  to  the  emperors. 

Thus  possessed  of  Italy,  Charles  received  the  iron  crown 
of  the  Romans,  at  the  hands  of  the  pope,  with  the  title  of 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  emperor  of  the  west.  Charles  took 
immediate  possession,  by  instituting  a  new  system  of  laws,  a 
new  police,  &c.  ;  and  combined  the  civil,  and  ecclesiastical 
government,  by  uniting  the  clergy  with  the  nobility,  after  the 
manner  of  France. 

Having  thus  disposed  of  his  conquests,  Charles  returned  to 
France,  and  marched  directly  against  the  revolted  Saxons, 
which  commenced  a  war  of  30  years  with  these  barbarians, 
who  were  finally  subdued,  and  annexed  to  his  empire.  Great 
persecutions  accompanied  this  war,  to  christianize  the  hea- 
then idolatrous  Saxons. 


CHAP.  IV. 

France  and  the  Church,  through  the  reign  cf  Charlemagne  &r.$. 
his  successors,  to  the  settlement  ofRolh,  the  Norman. 

THE  connection  between  the  French  and  Papal  thrones, 
has  been  inseparable  from  the  days  of  Clovis  ;  and  Charles 
increased  the  strength  of  that  union,  through  every  step  of 


90  CHARLEMAGNE. 

bis  reign.  He  endeavoured  to  compel  the  Saxons,  by  fire 
arid  sword,  to  embrace  Christianity  ;  with  some  he  succeeded, 
with  others  he  found  it  impossible  ;  they  fled  their  country, 
and  took  refuge  in  the  wilds  of  Norway.  Charles  was  a  real 
friend  to  religion  and  letters  ;  and  to  promote  both  these,  he 
was  a  friend  to  the  clergy,  and  admitted  them  into  the  gov- 
ernment with  the  nobles  ;  but  he  was  careful  to  preserve  his 
dignity  as  head  of  the  church  ;  and  the  pope  and  clergy 
yielded  to  him  this  homage. 

In  the  midst  of  the  co-operation  of  Charles,  and  Adrian  I. 
for  the  exaltation  of  the  papal,  and  French  monarchies,  died 
Adrian,  who  was  succeeded  by  Leo  III.  in  796,  who  sent  to 
Charlemagne  the  Roman  standard,"  begging  him  to  send  an 
embassy  to  receive  the  oath  of  fidelity  from  the  Romans." 

In  799,  Charlemagne  was  called  into  Italy  to  redress  an 
act  of  violence,  and  an  attempt  of  assassination,  offered  pope 
Leo,  in  the  streets  of  Rome.  Charles  repaired  to  Rome, 
passed  six  days  with  the  pope  in  the  year  800  :  and  assem- 
bled the  bishops,  and  nobles,  to  inquire  into  the  affair.  The 
bishops  denied  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  alleging,  that 
"  the  apostolic  see  cannot  be  judged  by  man  ;  "  Leo  ac- 
knowledged the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  and  as  no  proof  ap- 
peared against  him,  he  purged  himself  by  oath. 

On  Christmas  day,  as  Charles  was  assisting  at  mass,  and 
upon  his  knees  before  the  Altar,  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter  ; 
the  sovereign  pontiff  advanced,  put  an  imperial  crown  upon 
his  head  ;  and  the  people  exclaimed,  "  Long  live  the  empe- 
ror, long  life  and  victory  to  Charles  Augustus,  crowned  by 
the  hand  of  God — long  live  the  great,  and  pious  emperor  of 
the  Romans,"  arid  then  seated  him  upon  the  magnificent 
throne  of  the  Roman  emperors,  and  presented  him  with  the 
imperial  mantle.  Charles  returned,  amidst  the  acclamations 
of  the  people,  in  triumph  to  his  palace. 

High  raised  on  the  imperial  throne  of  the  west,  Charles 
received,  amidst  other  marks  of  respect  and  attention,  an 
overture  of  marriage  from  the  empress  Irene,  of  Constanti- 
nople, which  he  actually  accepted  ;  but  it  was  prevented  by 
i'-.e  interference'  of  Nicephorus,  the  patrician;  who  banish- 
ed Irene  to  the  island  of  Lesbos,  and  settled  with  Charles  a 
new  treaty  of  limits,  agreeable  to  his  mind,  in  the  year  802. 

Charles  received  particular  notice,  and  respect  from  the 
caliphs  of  the  Saracens,  particularly  the  caliph  Haroun  Al- 
raschid  ;  he  ceded  to  Lim,  by  his  embassy,  the  lordship  of 


I 


CHARLEMAGNE.  91 


Jerusalem,  and  amongst  other  presents,  sent  him  a  striking 
clock  ;  the  first  ever  known  in  France. 

The  Arabs  had  retained  the  arts,  notwithstanding  they  were 
lost  in  Europe  :  the  several  successive  caliphs  of  Bagdad, 
continued  this  respectful  notice  to  Charles,  until  they  fell  into 
disorder,  and  civil  wars,  which  ruined  the  arts  and  sciences 
amongst  them. 

Charles  was  truly  a  great  man  ;  but  fell  into  the  same  evil 
which  had  been  practised  by  his  predecessors,  in  dividing  his 
kingdom  between  his  three  sons,  Charles,  Lewis,  and  Pepin. 
These,  had  they  lived,  would  have  distracted  the  empire,  by 
their  civil  wars  ;  but  as  only  Lewis  survived,  he  found  em- 
ployment for  all  his  time. 

Charles,  near  the  close  of  his  reign,  began  to  feel  the  sword 
of  revenge  from  those  Saxons  who  had  escaped  his  sword, 
and  fled  into  Norway  :  these  Normans,  under  Godfrey  their 
leader,  landed  a  strong  force  upon  the  coast  of  France,  and 
threatened  the  empire  ;  but  just  at  the  commencement  of  the 
fatal  battle,  Godfrey  was  assassinated  by  one  of  his  followers, 
hisarmyfled  on  board  their  ships,  a  peace  was  settled,  and 
they  returned  home. 

The  relief  from  this  invasion,  was  followed  by  the  death  of 
Charles'  sons,  Charles  and  Pepin,  together  with  his  daughter 
Rotrude,  and  he  associated  Lewis  in  the  government  of  the 
empire  ;  and  to  express  the  independence  of  the  crown,  he 
placed  it  upon  the  altar,  and  directed  Lewis  to  raise  it  on  to 
his  own  head  ;  thus  shewing  that  he  held  it  of  God  only. 
Charles  died  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  814,  aged  seventy-one — 
having  reigned  forty-seven  years. 

The  empire  of  the  west  then  consisted  of  France,  Germa- 
ny, Italy,  part  of  Hungary,  Spain,  and  the  Low  Countries  ; 
and  the  head  of  this  empire  was  Charlemagne.  When  he 
fell,  his  empire  fell  with  him  ;  the  discordant  barbarians  on 
the  north  ;  the  intriguing,  factious  Italians  ;  the  jealous,  su- 
perstitious, half  Christian,  half  moorish  Spaniards  ;  the  dis- 
cordant, disjunctive,  conjoined  provinces  in  France,  and  up- 
on the  Rhine,  could  not  be  controlled,  but  by  the  same  force 
that  subdued  them,  and  under  the  same  wise  head. 

The  first  step  Lewis  took,  made  him  unpopular  with  the 
clergy  ;  this,  at  that  age,  was  destruction  to  any  reigo  :  he 
next,  divided  up  his  government  among  his  three  sons,  in  8 1 7  ; 
(Bernard,  grandson  of  Charlemagne  was  in  possession  of  Ita- 
ly, in  his  father's  right.)  To  add  to  the  scene  already  op- 


92  FEUDS   OF    FRANCE, 

ened  for  feuds,  Lewis  had  one  more  son,  by  a  second  mar- 
riage, (Charles  the  bald  ;)  him  he  associated  with  his  eldest 
son  Lothario,  in  the  government  of  France,  by  mutual  con- 
sent. 

He  was  now  prepared  for  all  the  trouble,  which  such  an 
age,  in  the  midst  of  such  discordant  interests  was  ready  to 
bring  upon  him.  The  feuds  opened,  by  a  coalition 'of  the 
three  brothers  against  the  father,  in  829.  This  rebellion 
drove  Lewis  to  the  church  for  consolation,  and  support  :  the 
church  took  advantage  of  this,  and  the  empire  was  in  the 
midst  of  distraction.  To  detail  the  occurrences  of  these 
scenes,  would  neither  improve  the  understanding,  correct 
the  morals,  or  mend  the  heart  :  suffice  it  to  say,  that  Grego- 
ry IV,  took  such  advantage  of  these  feuds,  as  to  bring  Lewis 
into  a  penitential  habit,  strip  him  of  his  throne,  and  then  de- 
creed "  A  penitent  is  incapable  of  civil  offices  ;  a  royal  peni- 
tent, must  then  be  incapable  of  reigning  ;  Lewis  subjected  to 
perpetual  penance  ;  he  can  never  ascend  the  throne." 

Lewis,  as  a  prisoner  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Medard  at 
Soissons,  in  due  form,  was  stripped  of  his  royal  robes,  in  pre- 
sence of  his  son  Lothario,  clad  in  the  penitential  sackcloth, 
and  assigned  to  his  cell,ybr  the  crime  of  taking  up  arms  against 
his  rebellious  sons.  The  scene  was  now  reversed  from  what 
it  was,  when  his  father  sat  in  judgment  upon  pope  Adrian  I. 
in  Italy  ;  and  the  characters  were  changed.  This  scene 
was  too  gross  even  for  this  barbarous  age.  The  feelings  of 
these  half  savages  revolted  at  this  triumph  of  a  son  over  a 
father  ;  the  two  brothers  united  against  Lothario,  who  had 
degraded  his  father,  restored  the  unhappy  king  to  his  crown, 
and  compelled  Lothario  to  crave  mercy  at  the  feet  of  his  fa- 
ther, in  presence  of  the  whole  army.  Lewis  granted  it-,  and 
yielded  to  him  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  in  834. 

The  death  of  Pepin  opened  a  new  scene  for  the  intrigues 
of  the  queen,  in  favor  of  her  son  Charles  the  bald  ;  again  the 
empire  was  torn  with  feuds  ;  Lewis  again  fell  a  sacrifice  to 
his  superstition,  and  died  near  Mentz,  aged  72  ;  having 
reigned  twenty-eight  years. 

As  soon  as  the  father  was  removed,  the  sons  drew  the  ' 
sword  upon  each  other,  and  to  carry  their  points,  resorted  to 
all  possible  expedients  ;  Lothario  offered  liberty  of  con- 
science to  the  Saxons,  (that  is,  to  return  to  their  idolatry)  if 
they  would  support  his  sword  ;  Lewis  and  Charles  stuck  to 
the  Church  ;  France  was  drenehed  in  blood.  A  fatal  action 


CONFLICTS    IN  FRANCE.  93 


was  fought,  in  which  Lewis  and  Charles  prevailed  over  Lo- 
thario ;  100,000  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  the  conflict  :  this 
caused  a  new  partition,  by  the  help  of  the  clergy. 

Added  to  these  troubles,  the  Saracens  pillaged  Italy  ;  the 
Normans  ravaged  France  ;  the  nobles  set  the  princes  at  de- 
fiance ;  these  all  combined,  rendered  the  empire  a  scene  of 
indescribable  wretchedness,  and  a  fit  "  stage  to  feed  conten- 
tion on."  The  Normans  in  their  ravages  penetrated  even 
to  the  gates  of  Paris  ;  and  France  was  an  aceldama  ;  kings, 
princes,  nobles,  and  Norman  marauders,  all  joined  in  the 
general  destruction. 

Amidst  these  scenes  of  distress,  the  clergy  assumed  the 
power  of  disposing  of  crowns,  and  held  it  until  a  more  en- 
lightened age  appeared  in  later  times.  One  instance  of  this 
assumption  may  serve  as  an  example.  "  Since  the  divine 
favor,  through  the  merits  of  the  holy  apostles,  and  their 
vicar  pope  John,  has  raised  you  to  the  throne,  according  to 
the  judgment  of  the  holy  ghost,  we  elect  you  unanimously, 
for  our  protector  and  Lord." 

Those  Normans  who  were  now  ravaging  France  and  un- 
der the  protection  of  these  feuds,  desolating  the  finest  provin- 
ces, claim  our  attention.  Amidst  the  conquests  of  Charle- 
magne in  Germany,  he  harassed  the  Saxons,  and  forced  such 
of  them  as  would  not  submit  to  his  yoke,  with  their  fallen 
country,  to  flee,  and  take  refuge  in  the  wilds  of  Scandinavia, 
or  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  form  a  social  union  with  those 
savages  of  the  north  ;  and  the  two  nations  soon  assimilated 
in  their  habits,  and  manners.  They  were  scourged  by  the 
persecution  of  Charlemagne,  on  account  of  their  religion; 
which  was  paganism  of  the  grossest  kind. 

Woden,  their  god,  was  to  them  a  god  of  terror,  devastation, 
and  carnage  :  in  this  character  they  worshipped  him,  and 
they  were  true  to  their  religion.  They  abhorred  Christiani- 
ty, such  as  Charlemagne  had  attempted  to  enforce  upon 
them.  Burning  with  revenge  for  the  sufferings  of  their  fal- 
len country,  they  assumed  the  name  of  Normans,  (or  north- 
ern men)  burst  from  their  northern  wilds,  and  in  the  reign 
of  Lewis  Debonair,  (son  of  Charlemagne)  became  to  France 
what  they  had  been  to  England  ;  appeared  on  the  coast  and 
spread  a  general  alarm. 

Upon  the  death  of  Lewis,  and  in  the  rei?n  of  Charles  the 
bald,  his  successor,  they  landed  on  the  coast  of  France,  com- 
mitted the  most  shocking  depredations  with  fire  and  sword. 


• 


SETTLEMENT  ©F    ROLLO. 


pillaged  the  country,  and  carried  off  their  booty,  together 
with  all  the  women  they  could  find,  and  as  many  boys  as 
they  could  seize,  to  recruit  their  armies  ;  they  besieged 
Charles,  burnt  Paris,  and  compelled  the  king  to  pay  trib- 
ute. This  money,  not  only  induced,  but  enabled  these  bar- 
barians to  repeat  their  visits,  until  Hollo,  their  distinguished 
chief,  took  advantage  of  Charles  the  simple,  one  of  the  suc- 
cessors of  Charles  the  bald. 

During  this  weak,  and  distracted  reign,  Rollo  sailed  up  the 
Seine,  at  the  head  of  his  Normans,  took  Rouen,  fortified  it  as 
Nhis  strong  hold,  and  began  his  ravages.  Charles,  alarmed  at 
the  bold  invasion  of  this  daring  adventurer,  offered  him  his 
daughter  in  marriage,  and  the  province  of  Neustra,  if  he  and 
his  followers  would  embrace  the  Christian  religion,  and  do 
him  homage:  Rollo  consented,  and  this  province  in  911 
took  the  name  of  Normandy,  and  soon  became  populous. 
They  cultivated  the  arts  of  civilization  with  the  rest  of 
France,  and  became  a  body  of  good  citizens,  for  that  day,  un- 
der a  brave  and  able  prince. 

During  these  distressing  scenes  in  France,  and  England 
too,  the  affairs  of  Germany  were  in  as  distracted  a  situation 
under  the  weak  princes  of  the  line  of  Charlemagne  ;  until 
they  were  relieved  in  some  measure  by  the  election  of  Con- 
rad I.  upon  the  extinction  of  this  sluggish  race,  in  912. 


CHAP.    V. 

Germany  from  the  election  of  Conrad  I.  with  Italy  and  the 
Church,  down  to  the  year  1004. 

To  sever  the  Germanic  body  from  its  connection  with 
France,  establish,  and  maintain  a  firm,  and  independent  sove- 
reignty, was  a  task  which  distracted  the  reign  of  Conrad  I. 
To  settle  the  dominion  of  the  duchy  of  Lorrain  engrossed  his 
first  attention,  and  led  to  sharp  conflicts  with  Charles  the  sim- 
ple, king  of  France.  At  the  same  time  the  Huns,  or  Hunga- 
rians, commenced  their  ravages  and  depredations  upon  the 
empire,  with  fire  and  sword  ;  penetrated  to  the  Rhine,  and 
compelled  Conrad  to  purchase  a  peace  in  917. 

Upon  the  death  of  Conrad  (which  soon  followed,)  the 
states  of  Germany,  by  their  electors,  chose  Henry  the  I.  of 


Sax 


AFFAIRS    OF    GERMANY-  95 


ony,  as  his  successor,  in  920.  These  electors  were  com- 
posed of  seven  of  the  higher  orders  of  the  clergy  and  no- 
bility, viz  :  the  arch  bishops  of  Mentz,  Cologne,  and  Treves, 
(chancellors  of  the  three  great  districts  into  which  Germany 
was  anciently  divided,)  the  king  of  Bohemia,  Duke  of  Saxo- 
ny, marquis  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  count  palatine  of  the 
Rhine. 

Henry  drew  his  sword,  marched  into  Lorrain,  settled  the 
fate  of  that  Duchy,  humbled  the  refractory,  settled  the  gene- 
ral internal  tranquillity,  and  marched  a  powerful  army  against 
The  Hungarians,  who  were  again  committing  their  ravages  in 
the  empire  ;  he  expelled  the  invaders  at  the  memorable  bat- 
tle of  Mersburg,  and  reduced  them  to  terms. 

Having  there  established  the  sovereignty,  and  tranquillity 
of  Germany,  he  attempted  the  conquest  of  Italy,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Pope,  but  was  seized  with  an  apoplexy  on  his 
way, returned,  died,  and  left  the  work  to  his  son  Otho  the  I. 

The  distracted  state  of  France,  at  this  time,  under  Charles 
the  simple,  amidst  the  ravages  of  the  Normans,  was  truly  dis- 
tressing. Charles  died  in  929  :  then  under  Lewis  the  stran- 
ger, great  grandson  of  Alfred  the  great  ;  (who  had  been  edu- 
cated in  England,)  it  was  distracted  with  the  usurpations  of 
Hugh,  great  duke  of  France.  Lewis  died  in  954,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Lothario,  who  died  in  986,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  sor>  Lewis  V.  who  died  in  the  midst  of  trou- 
bles in  987.  With  him  the  race  of  Charlemagne  became 
extinct  in  France, 

During  this  distracted  state  of  France,  Otho,  that  took  the 
sword  of  his  father,  humbled  the  Hungarians,  who  again  in- 
vaded the  empire, "at  the  famous  battle  of  Dortmond,  in  West- 
phalia ;  humbled  the  Bohemians,  who  had  revolted,  and  com- 
pelled these  pagan  barbarians  to  embrace  Christianity,  in 
937  ;  he  drew  his  sword,  and  humbled  the  refractory  spirit 
of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  who  attempted  to  act  the  part  of 
Hugh,  Duke  of  France. 

This  overbearing  spirit  of  the  great  fiefs,  began  generally 
to  prevail  at  this  time,  and  distract  the  governments  of  Eu- 
rope :  to  counteract  the  spirit  of  the  nobles,  Otho  augmented 
the  powers  of  the  clergy,  propagated  Christianity  by  fire  and 
sword,  after  the  example  of  Charlemagne  ;  and  extended  it 
even  into  Denmark,  in  948.  Having  thus  settled  the  affairs  of 
the  north,  he  prepared  (o  redress  the  wrongs  of  Adelaide, 


96  AFFAIRS    OF    ITALY. 

widow  of  Lothario,  son  of  duke  Hugh,  who  was  imprisoned 
by  the  usurper  Berengarius. 

Otho  marched  into  Italy,  relieved  Adelaida,  married  her, 
subdued  the  country,  and  returned  into  Germany  to  subdue 
his  son  Ludelphus,  who  had  conspired  against  him,  with  sev- 
eral of  the  great  fiefs  of  Germany.  Otho  received  the  sub- 
mission of  his  son,  and  sent  him  into  Italy  to  quell  an  insur- 
rection under  the  same  Berengarius  from  whose  power  he 
delivered  Adelaida,  where  he  died  ;  the  rebel  triumphed 
over  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy,  and  in  his  turn  began  to  op- 
press the  Pope  John  XII.  then  only  eighteen  years  of  age. 

Otho  obeyed  with  alacrity  the  call  of  John,  summoned  a 
diet  at  Worms,  caused  his  son,  Otho  II.  to  be  elected  his  suc- 
cessor, marched  into  Italy,  deposed  Berengarius,  was  crown- 
ed at  Pavia,  king  of  Lombardy,  and  Milan  ;  entered  Rome 
in  triumph,  and  was  crowned  by  the  Pope,  emperor  of  the 
Romans,  with  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  his  holiness  swore  al- 
legiance to  him  upon  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter,  962. 

Otho,  in  his  turn,  confirmed  to  his  Holiness  the  grant  of 
Pepin  and  Charlemagne  ;  "  saving  in  all  things,  his  own,  and 
his  sons,  and  successors  authority."  This  reservation  caus- 
ed a  revolt  upon  the  first  absence  of  the  emperor,  and  John, 
by  an  unnatural  alliance  with  Adelbert,  son  of  Berengarius, 
took  up  arms  against  the  emperor. 

Fired  with  indignation,  Otho  marched  to  Rome,  deposed 
John,  and  caused  Leo  VIII.  (a  virtuous  layman,)  to  be  elected 
Pope.  Upon  the  first  absence  again  of  Otho,  a  faction  re- 
stored John  upon  this  maxim,  "  that  no  inferior  can  degrade 
a  superior ;"  John  died  by  assassination,  and  Benedict  V. 
was  elected  Pope. 

Fired  with  indignation,  Otho  returned  to  Rome,  restored 
Leo,  deposed  Benedict,  and  banished  him  to  Hamburg,  and 
extorted  this  concession  from  Leo,  the  clergy,  and  the  Ro- 
man people  ;  "  that  Otho,  and  his  successors  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  should  always  have  the  power  of  choosing  a  succes- 
sor, naming  a  Pope,  and  giving  investiture  to  bishops." 

During  the  stay  of  Otho  in  Italy,  Leo  VIII.  died,  and  the  im- 
perial commissioners  elected  John  XIII.  when  Otho  returned 
to  Germany.  The  Italians  again  revolted,  and  expelled 
John.  Fired  again  with  indignation  at  the  restless,  factious 
spirit  of  Italy,  Otho  marched  again  to  Rome,  took  vengeance 
on  the  factious  leaders,  banished  the  consuls,  hanged  the  tri- 
bunes, and  caused  the  Roman  prefect  to  be  whipped  through 


OTlJO    AND    THE    POPES  ^  97 

the  streets  on  an  ass  ;  restored  the  Pope,  and  retired  to  Ca- 
pua, where  he  received  overtures  of  alliance  from  the  Greek 
emperor  between  his  daughter  and  the  son  of  Otho,  not^ 
Otho  II.  which  was  delayed  by  the  treachery  of  her  father  ; 
but  in  the  reign  of  his  successor,  the  match  was  consummated 
in  Italy,  in  970,  and  Otho  returned  to  Germany,  under  the 
appellation  of  Otho  the  great,  where  he  died,  in  973,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Otho  II. 

In  this  reign  the  factions  of  Germany  were  kept  under  ; 
but  the  factions  in  Italy  prevailed  again,  and  the  scene  again 
changed  ;  the  factions  had  now  elected  three  popes  at  the 
same  time,  and  when  the  imperial  pope  was  established,  the 
ex-pope  had  recourse  to  that  power  which  the  kings  of 
France  had  delivered  them  from  ;  and  again  applied  to  the 
Greek  emperor  at  Constantinople  for  relief :  such  is  the 
caprice,  such  the  insatiable  thirst  of  ambition,  and  the  lus| 
of  power  in  man. 

Otho  II.  like  his  father,  drew  his  sword,  marched  into 
Italy,  chastised  the  rebels  at  Rome  ;  but  in  his  turn,  was 
chastised  by  the  Saracens,  who  invaded  Italy  through  the 
instigation  of  the  Greek  emperor.  Otho  died  at  Rome  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Otho  III.  at  twelve  years  of  age,  in 
983.  During  his  minority,  the  torch  of  civil  war  was  again 
lit  in  Germany,  and  Italy  ;  but  when  he  came  of  age,  he  like 
his  grandfather,  drew  his  sword,  hushed  the  storms,  expel- 
led the  Danes  from  Germany,  and  compelled  them  to  receive 
Christian  missionaries  into  Denmark  and  Norway.  Having 
quelled  a  second  revolt,  and  settled  a  second  papal  election 
in  Italy,  Otho  marched  into  Poland,  at  the  request  of  duke 
Bolislaus,  and  created  him  king,  reserving  Poland  as  a  fief  of 
the  German  empire,  in  the  year  1000. 

The  Saracens,  taking  advantage  of  Otho's  absence,  again 
entered  Italy,  and  penetrated  to  Rome  :  Otho  again  entered 
Italy,  expelled  the  invasion,  returned  to  Rome, where  he  fell 
a  sacrifice  to  the  poisonous  treachery  of  an  injured  woman. 
Otho  left  no  issue,  and  of  course  a  contested  throne,  which 
finally  was  settled  upon  Henry  II.  grandson  of  Otho  II. 

The  troubles  of  Germany  and  Italy,  were  the  same  in  thi* 
reign,  as  in  that  of  the  three  Othos.  The  feuds  of  Germany  , 
Italy  and  Poland,  so  greatly  harassed  Henry,  that  he  attempt- 
ed to  retire  from  the  throne  in  1004,  and  actually  took  the  re- 
ligious habit  ;  but  at  the  same  time  resumed  the  sceptre  again 
by  this  artful  finesse  of  the  abbot  of  St.  Val.  "  Monks  ow«* 
obedience,  said  the  abbot,  to  their  superiors.  I  order  you  to 


98  ^ENGLAND  AND    FRANCE. 

continue  at  the  helm  of  government."  This  was  not  the  on- 
ly expression  of  the  weakness  of  Henry  ;  and  yet  he  had  en- 
ergies which  were  adequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the  times, 
and  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  his  crown  continued  to  in- 
crease during  the  remainder  of  his  reign,  which  closed  by 
his  death,  in  1024. 

I  have  dwelt  the  more  minutely  upon  the  feuds  of  Italy, 
that  the  foundation  of  the  subsequent  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
feuds,  between  Italy  arid  Germany,  a»d  also  the  strife  be. 
tween  Germany  and  France,  for  the  dominion  of  Italy,  to- 
gether with  the  intrigues  of  the  popes,  to  obtain  and  exercise 
universal  sovereignty,  both  temporal  and  spiritual,  may  be 
the  more  correctly  understood. 


CHAP.  VI. 

England  and  France,  from  the  rise  of  Edward  /.  the  Confessor 
to  the  Norman  conquest ,  106G. 

During  these  struggles  on  the  continent  the  affairs  of  Eng- 
land under  Ldward,  son  and  successor  of  Alfred  the  great, 
continued  io  flourish  as  Alfred  left  them.  The  Danes  con- 
tinued their  ravages,  through  his  reign, but  without  obtaining 
any  advantages  ;  and  he  died  victorious  925,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  natural  son,  Athelstan,  who  attempted  to  prac- 
tice the  same  policy  with  the  Danes  in  Northumberland,  that 
Charles  the  bald  had  practised  with  Rollo  the  Norman,  in 
France  ;  he  conferred  this  district  upon  Sitheric  a  Danish 
chief,  with  the  title  of  king,  and  gave  him  his  sister  in  mar- 
riage, but  not  with  the  same  success. 

This  occasioned  a  war  between  Athelstan,  and  Scotland, 
which  secured  to  him  a  peaceful  reign.  He  passed  a  law  for 
the  encouragement  of  Commerce,  by  confering  the  title  of 
lesser  thane,  on  every  merchant,  who  should  make  two  voy- 
ages to  distant  lands  on  his  own  account.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Edmund,  in  941. 

Nothing  of  importance  took  place  in  this  rei«-;n,  and  Ed- 
mund was  assassinated  in  the  midst  of  a  feast,  by  a  notorious 
robber,  Leolf,  whom  he  had  banished,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Kdred.  He  took  all  possible  care  to  check  the 
wcursioris  of  the  Danes,  and  devoted  the  greatest  part  of  his 
rei'-ai  lo  extend  and  cultivate  the  monastic  life  in  IThgland. 


KDWYj    EI.GIVA,     DUNSTAN.  99 

The  first  preachers  amongst  the  Saxons,  had  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  doetrine  and  practice  of  celibacy  ;  but  in  this 
reign  it  was  carried  to  its  extreme.  Edred  died  in  955,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Edvvy,  son  of  his  predecessor  Edmund,  at 
the  age  of  17.  Ed\vy,  charmed  with  the  person  ofElgiva, 
his  second  or  third  cousin,  ventured  to  marry  her.  This 
roused  up  the  whole  force  of  monastic  indignation  ;  Edwy 
was  denounced  by  the  monks,  which  proceeded  to  open  vio- 
lence and  even  to  abuse  of  the  queen,  by  Dunstan,  the  abbot 
ofGlastenbury,  who  was  at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  and  by 
the  arch  bishop  of  Canterbury. 

Edwy  resented  the  insult  and  punished  Dunstan.  The 
arch  bishop  denounced  the  queen,  caused  her  to  be  seized, 
her  fatal  beauty  to  be  destroyed,  by  burning  her  face  with  red 
hot  irons,  then  banished  her  to  Ireland  for  life  ;  and  compell- 
ed Edwy  to  consent  to  a  divorce,  which  was  pronounced  by 
the  arch  bishop. 

Fearing  the  royal  sufferer  might  return  to  the  embraces  of 
the  king,  they  caused  her  to  be  murdered  ;  dethroned  Edwy, 
placed  his  brother  Edgar  upon  the  throne,  at  thirteen  years  of 
age,  and  made  Dunstan  regent. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Edwy,  Dunstan  with 
the  title  of  St.  was  abbot  of  Glastenbury,  aud  made  head  of 
the  treasury.  Upon  the  deposition  of  Edwy  and  the  acces- 
sion of  Edgar,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Worcester,  then  of 
London,  then  arch  bishop  of  Canterbury  ;  and  held  the  reins 
of  government  during  the  minority.  He  triumphed  over  the 
unfortunate  Edwy,  by  the  unrelenting  vengeance  ofecclesias- 
tical  excommunications  ;  and  persecuted  him  even  unto  death. 

The  affairs  of  England  flourished  generally,  under  this 
monkish  reign  ;  and  Edgar,  by  sacrificing  every  thing  to  their 
humor,  obtained  the  title  of  St.  and  a  virtuous  man  ;  notwith- 
standing he  was  a  most  debauched  libertine,  and  very  much 
the  prototype  of  Henry  VIII. 

Edgar  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Edward,  in  975,  through 
the  intrigues  of  Dunstan.  In  three  years  he  was  murdered 
by  the  intrigues  of  Elfrida,  his  step-mother,  to  make  way  for 
her  son  Ethelred. 

This  was  a  bloody  succession,  and  a  bloody  reign.  The 
Danes  renewed  their  depredations  upon  England,  and  Ethel- 
red  purchased  a  shameful  peace.  This  invited  new  depreda- 
tions, which  were  appeased  as  before  ;  and  to  revenge  these 
incursions,  Ethelred  gave  secret  orders  for  a  general  mossa- 


100          ROBERT,  BERTHA  AND  THE  POfE. 

ere  of  the  Danes,  throughout  England  upon  a,  particular  day. 
This  fatal  order  was  as  fatally  executed  upon  all  ranks  and 
classes  of  every  age  and  sex. 

The  vengeance  of  heaven  followed  this  barbarity.  Sweyn, 
king  of  Denmark,  entered  England  with  a  powerful  force,  and 
ravaged  the  country  with  fire  and  sword.  The  distresses  of 
the  nation  wer£  incomparably  great ;  Ethelred  fled  to  the  pro- 
tection of  Richard,  Duke  of  Normandy,  his  brother-in-law, 
until  the  death  of  Sweyn  :  he  then  returned  to  his  throne  ;  but 
not  in  peace  :  Canute  the  successor  of  Sweyn,  assembled  an 
army,  harassed  the  country  and  hunted  Ethelred  to  his  death, 
in  1016.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son Edmond,  styled  Iron- 
side. His  efforts  to  restore  the  tranquillity  of  England  were 
worthy  of  better  success  ;  he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  Danish 
treachery,  and  left  the  throne  to  Canute  the  Dane,  in  1017. 
.  During  this  distracted  state  of  affairs  in  England,  Germany 
and  Italy,  in  which  we  have  seen  a  change  of  dynasty,  the 
same  causes  produced  the  same  events  in  France,  and  estab- 
lished the  feudal  system  in  that  kingdom  ;  which  was  now  be- 
come a  monstrous  assemblage  of  members,  without  a  head. 

Hugh  Capet,  who  had  become  the  greatest  nobleman  in 
France,  and  whose  influence  had  given  law  to  the  several  last 
reigns,  upon  the  death  of  Lewis  V.  seized  on  the  crown  by 
his  address  in  securing  the  favour  of  the  clergy,  associating 
his  son  Robert  with  him  in  the  government,  with  the  title  of 
king  ;  and  retaining  his  former  title  of  duke,  he  secured  the 
throne  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rightful  heir  of  the  house  of 
Lorrain  ;  established  his  dynasty  and  left  his  son  in  quiet 
succession,  in  996. 

Robert  fell  under  the  same  misfortunes  of  Edwy  of  Eng- 
land, and  became  the  object  of  the  same  ecclesiastical  cen- 
sure and  tyrannic  power.  Robert  espoused  his  fourth  cous- 
in Bertha  ;  this  consanguinity  gave  offence  to  pope  Gregory 
V.  and  he  undertook  to  dissolve  the  marriage,  although  con- 
firmed by  several  Bishops.  Robert  was  strongly  attached  to 
the  queen,  and  by  persisting  in  the  connection,  fell  under  the 
bull  of  excommunication,  with  all  its  rigors.  His  own  cour- 
tiers would  not  eat  with  him,  his  own  domestics  all  forsook 
him,  except  two  ;  these  threw  to  the  dogs  what  food  he  left, 
and  purified  the  dishes  by  fire  on  which  he  ate,  and  told 
frightful  stories  about  the  queen.  The  pope  succeeded  ; 
Robert  yielded  to  the  censure,  divorced  his  queen,  who  was 
the  idol  of  his  heart,  and  married  a  termagant.  This  sacri- 
fice restored  him  to  the  favour  of  his  holiness. 


CANUTE    THE    DANE. 


101 


Robert  refused  the  crown  of  Germany  upon  the  death  of 
Henry  II.  the  last  of  the  Saxon  line  ;  and  after  having  strug- 
gled long  with  the  intrigues  of  Constance,  his  queen,  in  regu- 
lating the  succession,  upon  the  death  of  his  eldest  son  Hugh, 
he  died  in  1031  ;  and  left  his  crown  to  his  son  Henry  I.  at 
the  age  of  twenty-seven  ;  who  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
Normandy,  to  avoid  the  intrigues  of  his  mother,  in  favour  of 
her  youngest  son  Robert. 

Here  he  assembled  an  army,  entered  France,  humbled  the 
queen,  established  his  throne  ;  and  Henry,  in  grateful  re- 
turn added  several  provinces  to  the  duchy  of  Normandy.  At 
this  time  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  set  out  on  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died,  and  left  his  natural  son  William, 
then  a  minor,  to  inherit  his  possessions. 

Henry  I.  of  France,  and  Alan,  duke  of  Bretagne,  (although 
constituted  guardians  of  William,  by  his  father,  before  he 
left  Normandy  ;)  both  became  competitors  for  the  duchy  : 
but  William,  by  the  assistance  of  Henry,  triumphed  over 
Alan,  and  obtained  his  estate,  in  1046.  General  tranquillity 
prevailed  in  France,  through  this  reign,  and  during  the  minori- 
ty of  Philip  I.  son  and  successor  of  Henry  ;  who  died  in  1060. 

At  this  time  Canute  had  established  himself  upon  the 
throne  of  England,  and  reversed  the  scene  ;  he  oppressed 
the  English  with  severe  and  heavy  taxes,  and  bestowed,  at 
the  same  time,  great  favors  upon  his  Danish  followers.  This 
roused  the  seeds  ofjealousy,  indignation,  and  revenge. — The 
English  sought  for  an  opportunity  to  redress  their  wrongs; 
this  led  Canute  to  change  his  policy,  send  off  such  Danes  as 
could  be  spared,  without  weakening  his  government,  and  at 
the  same  time,  he  sent  Edwin  and  Edward,  the  two  sons  of 
Edmund  ironside,  (during  their  minority,)  into  Sweden,  un- 
der pretence  of  receiving  their  education  ;  but  really  for  the 
purpose  of  being  privately  despatched,  to  secure  the  tran- 
quillity of  his  throne.  The  king  of  Sweden  did  not  comply 
with  his  wishes,  but  sent  them  into  Hungary  ;  here  they 
found  a  protector. 

Edwin  married  the  sister  of  his  protector,  and  died  without 
issue.  Edward  married  the  sister-in-law  of  King  Solomon, 
and  daughter  of  Henry  II.  by  whom  he  had  Edgar  Ath sling, 
Margaret,  queen  ofScots,  arid  Christina  the  nun.  The  two 
sons  of  Ethclred,  Alfred,  and  Edward,  M-ere  under  the  pro- 
tection of  their  uncle  Richard,  duke  of  Normanclv,  who  had 


102 


DUKE   OF  NORMANDY 


made  some  preparation  to  restore  the  princes  to  the  throne  of 
their  father. 

The  crafty  Canute  resolved  to  break  this  storm  ;  .iccord- 
ingly  he  made  overtures  of  marriage  to  Emma,  the  sister  of 
Richard,  and  queen  of  Ethelred,  by  his  second  marriage,  and 
mother  of  Alfred,  and  Edward  ;  this  overture  was  accepted, 
the  marriage  consummated  in  England,  and  Emma  restored  to 
the  throne  of  Ethelred,  by  the  hands  of  the  conqueror,  and 
usurper  :  this  marriage  restored  tranquillity  to  England. 

Canute  made  a  visit  to  Denmark,  and  by  the  valor  of  his 
English  subjects,  subdued  Sweden,  and  upon  a  second  visit 
subdued  Norway  ;  returned  home  in  triumph,  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Rome,  humbled  Malcolm  king  of  Scotland,  died  in 
1035  ;  and  left  his  crown  to  his  son  Harold  harefoot,  to  the 
exclusion  ofHardicanute,  the  rightful  heir,  by  queen  Emma. 
These  princes  were  only  the  stepping  stones  to  the  rightful 
succession  of  Edward,  son  of  Ethelred,  then  in  Normandy  ; 
this  succession  at  first  gave  great  satisfaction  to  England  ;  but 
his  weakness  led  him  to  shew  the  same  partiality  to  the  Nor- 
mans, Canute  had  done  to  the  Danes,  which  produced  the 
.same  jealousy,  and  discontent ;  by  a  foolish  vow,  he  obtained 
the  title  of  confessor,  from  the  monks  ;  but  left  his  throne 
open  to  competitors,  which  under  earl  Godwin  began  to  dis- 
tract the  kingdom,  and  extorted  from  him  the  condition,  that 
all  foreigners  should  be  banished  the  kingdom.  Godwin,  af- 
ter having  extorted  this  concession  from  the  king,  died,  and 
left  his  estate  to  Harold  his  son. 

The  death  ofSiward,  at  this  time  the  hero  of  England,  who 
had  killed  Macbeth,  the  usurper  of  the  crown  of  Scotland, 
and  restored  Malcolm  to  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  was  a 
severe  loss  to  Edward  ;  and  left  an  opening  for  Harold  to 
disturb  the  government  of  Edward,  by  his  arms,  and  in- 
trigues ,  and  when  Edward  died,  he  left  Harold,  Edgar  Athe- 
ling,  (the  sole  surviving  heir,  who  had  been  sent  first  to 
Sweden,  thence  to  Hungary,  thence  into  England  by  the 
voice  of  the  people,)  and  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  cousin 
to  Edward,  as  competitors  for  the  crown. 

Harold,  being  at  the  head  of  that  army  with  which  he  had 
subdued  Wales,  stepped  on  to  the  throne,  and  supported  his 
title  with  the  sword.  Neither  Edgar  Atheling,  nor  William 
gave  him  any  trouble  ;  but  his  brother  Tosti,  who  had  beea 
expelled  from  his  tyrannical  government  in  Northumberland, 
by  his  oppressed  people,  and  taken  refuge  in  Flanders,  in> 


CONQUERS  ENGLAND.  103 

liately  entered  into  a  le.»-  with  Falfager,  king  of  Nor- 
way, and  invaded  England  with  H  powerful  fieeL  -?nd  -ir^y, 
landed  their  forces,  aiid  began  their  ravr~es.  Harold  roused 
to  the  contest,  assembled  an  army,  n.  -i  t1  -  invaders,  gave 
them  battle,  killed  Halfager  and  Tosti,  the  chiefs  ;  destroy- 
ed, and  dispersed  the  invaders. 

In  this  distracted  moment,  William,  duke  of  Normandy, 
appeared  in  England  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  claimed  the 
crown,  by  right  of  the  will  of  Edward  the  confessor,  and  sum- 
moned Harold  to  surrender  the  throne  ;  the  chiefs  were  at 
issue,  and  appealed  to  the  sword,  an  instrument  equally  fa- 
miliar to  both.  Harold  collected  his  forces,  and  marched  to 
meet  the  invader,  and  give  him  battle.  The  two  armies 
met  at  Hastings,  a  parley  ensued  ;  but  without  success,  ;md 
both  armies  prepared  for  action.  The  English  passed  the 
night  in  riot,  and  feasting  ;  the  Normans  in  prayer  and  pre- 
paration, and  at  the  dawn  of  day,  William  drew  up  his  army. 
Upon  the  signal  given  for  battle,  he  began  the  charge  with 
the  famous  song  of  Roland,  the  renowned  chief  of  Charle- 
magne. 

Harold,  posted  on  an  eminence,  with  inferior  numbers,  re- 
ceived the  violence  of  the  onset,  on  foot,  at  the  head  of  his 
irif.mtry  ;  the  conflict  was  terrible,  the  Normans  were  bro- 
ken, and  began  to  fall  into  disorder.  William  rallied  them 
in  person,  and  led  on  the  charge  ;  the  English  gave  way  in 
their  turn  ;  but  resisted  with  firmness  as  they  retired. 

William  beat  a  retreat,  and  retired  into  the  plain,  where 
his  cavalry  could  act  with  more  advantage,  and  the  English 
pursued  in  triumph.  William  faced  about,  the  conflict  be- 
rarne  desperate,  his  cavalry  fell  upon  the  wings  of  the  Eng- 
lish, they  fled  again  in  their  turn  ;  William  pursued,  and  again 
practised  the  same  stratagem,  and  succeeded  as  before  ;  drew 
the  English  army  into  the  plain,  and  again  faced  about ;  the 
conflict  was  again  terrible,  the  carnage  on  both  sides  equalled 
their  valor  :  Harold  fell  at  the  head  of  his  guards,  and  with 
him  fell  the  crown  of  England  :  the  army  fled,  and  dispersed, 
leaving  a  carnage  of  more  than  thirty  thousand  upon  both 
sides.  William  entered  London  in  triumph,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  English  throne,  October,  1066. 

If  William  was  a  conqueror,  Harold  had  been  an  usurper, 
the  terror  of  whose  sword  had  reduced  to  him  the  crown  of 
England  ;  not  the  choice  of  the  people.  By  the  nobility, 
William  was  kindly  received,  and  by  the  people,  cheerfully 


104  CONSTANTINOPLE. 


, 

on 


obeyed.  An  unguarded  step  in  William,  in  retiring  to  Nor- 
mandy too  soon  after  his  conquest,  occasioned  a  rebellion 
that  created  great  distress  to  the  nation,  and  opened  the  way 
for  the  ruin  of  Saxon  liberty,  by  the  introduction  of  the  feu- 
dal system  into  England,  which  divided  the  kingdom  up  in- 
to baronies,  and  harassed  arid  distressed  the  nation,  down  to 
the  reign  of  Henry  VI 11.  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


CHAP.  VII. 

Spain  and  the  Clmrch,  with  Germany,  and  lialy,   through  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  year  1099. 

THE  affairs  of  the  continent  now  claim  our  attention,  par- 
ticularly those  ofSpain,  the  Saracens,  and  the  Greek  or  Rom- 
an empire  at  Constantinople  ;  these  we  left  about  the  year 
768,  upon  the  death  of  Abdurrahman,  the  Moorish  king  in 
Spain.  At  this  time  Portugal,  and  about  three  fourths  of 
Spain,  were  under  the  dominion  of  the  Moors,  Arabs,  or 
Saracens,  and  of  course  under  the  Mahometan  religion.  The 
conflicts  between  the  Christians,  and  Mahometans,  together 
with  the  private  quarrels  which  arose  from  jealousy,  strife, 
and  ambition,  between  the  divided  interests  of  the  two  great 
parties,  rendered  Spain  the  theatre  of  carnage,  crimes,  in- 
trigues, and  desolation,  for  several  centuries. 

To  enumerate  the  exploits  of  Ramiro  II.  king  of  Leon,  and 
Oviedo  ;  of  Almanzor,  the  hero  of  Hissem,  king  of  Cordova  : 
and  of  Sancho  the  great,  king  of  Navarre,  could  neither  in- 
terest the  feelings,  nor  improve  the  heart.  They  all  achiev- 
ed some  acts  worthy  of  notice  ;  but  many  more  to  be  abhor- 
red, and  forgotten. 

During  this  period  the  same  dissensions,  and  divisions, 
sprang  up  amongst  the  followers  of  Mahomet,  as  we  have 
seen  in  Christendom.  Lust  of  power,  and  domination,  arm- 
ed with  all  the  excesses  of  ignorance,  and  fanaticism,  spread 
carnage,  and  desolation,  not  only  in  Spain,  but  in  the  Saracen 
states  in  Africa,  and  Asia,  and  by  their  feuds,  divisions,  and 
contentions,  paved  the  way  for  the  dominion  of  the  Turks, 
which  rose  upon  their  ruins. 

During  these  distressing  scenes  in  the  dominions  of  Ma- 
homet, and  St.  Peter,  the  two  feet  of  the  Roman  empire  ; 


POPERV.  106 

the  main  stock  at  Constantinople  stood  like  a  rock  in  the 
midst  of  the  ocean,  lashed  with  the  waves,  and  beaten  by  the 
tempests,  with  here  and  there  a  fragment  torn  off,  yet  firm 
on  its  base  :  torn  by  internal  feuds,  jealousies,  intrigues,  and 
corruptions,  it  was  often  a  prey  to  factions;  but  it  preserved 
its  unity,  and  its  splendid  excellence  in  the  arts  and  sciences, 
in  the  midst  of  the  dark  cloud  of  ignorance,  and  wretched- 
ness which  hung  around  it. 

Even  here  the  arts  were  nursed  in  the  lap  of  luxury,  ef- 
feminacy, licentiousness,  and  corruption  ;  and  even  here, 
that  church,  which  Costantine  had  so  faithfuly  nursed,  and 
adorned,  was  seated  in  the  same  lap,  and  partook  of  the  same 
corruptions  with  the  arts  ;  and  here,  the  bon  mots  of  Clovis, 
and  Chilperic,  his  grandson,  might  as  well  apply,  as  in  the 
dominions  of  St.  Peter.  "  St.  Martin  serves  his  friends  very 
well  ;  but  he  makes  them  pay  roundly  for  his  trouble." — 
Clovis.  "  Our  treasure  is  poor  ;  our  riches  are  gone  to  the 
church  ;  the  bishops  are  the  kings." — Chilperic. 

Thus  we  have  noticed  with  particular  attention,  the  rise 
and  progress  of  the  papal  church,  and  power,  from  the  days 
of  Clovis,  until  this  time  ;  we  have  seen  how  the  popes  a- 
vailed  themselves  of  the  genius  of  the  religion  of  the  barba- 
rians ;  of  idolatry,  avarice,  and  despotic  power  ;  arid  how 
they  raised  the  papal  throne,  upon  this  broad,  and  corrupt 
basis,  and  upon  the  ruins  of  Christianity.  They  engrafted 
the  heathen  mythology  of  the  Greeks,  and  Romans,  together 
with  these  principles  of  the  barbarians,  upon  the  old  Jewish 
stock  :  the  pope  became  high  priest,  laid  aside  his  mitre, 
took  the  triple  crown  and  sceptre,  and  retained  enough  of 
Christianity,  to  exercise  the  spiritual  power  of  St.  Peter,  and, 
with  the  keys  of  eternal  justice,  become  arbiter  of  the  world. 
Money  amongst  the  barbarians  compensated  for  nil  crimes  ; 
this  principle  exactly  suited  the  exigencies  of  the  popes. 
Money  purchased  the  frowns,  or  favors  of  the  churc\  and 
the  salo  of  indulgencies,  together  with  the  price  of  red~mp- 
"tion  from  purgatory,  raised  a  revenue,  thnt  enabled  the  popes 
to  support  the  most  splendid  throne  upon  er-rth.  These  ages 
were  not  only  dark  and  ignorant,  but  corrupt  in  the  extreme  ; 
to  fourd  a  cloister,  or  endow  i  church,  atoned  for  a  whole 
life  of  the  blackest  crimes  :  this  became  another  source  of 
the  wealth  --rul  sj  '.,  :.''<•..•  «-fthe  church. 

Thus  hi.;h  rr.ise.d  to   :  ower,  and  enthroned  on  i^nor;  nre, 
superstition  and  corruption,  the  pope  held  all  Europe  at  his 


106  -HENRY  IV.  AND  GREGORY  VIJ. 

nod.  One  example  from  St.  Egidius,  bishop  of  Noyon,  may 
serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  spiritual  style  of  the  pulpit.  "Re- 
deem your  souls  from  destruction,  while  you  have  the  means 
in  your  power  ;  offer  presents  and  tythes  to  churchmen  ; 
come  more  frequently  to  church  ;  humbly  implore  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  saints  ;  for  if  you  observe  these  things,  you 
may  come  with  security  in  the  day  of  the  tribunal  of  the 
eternal  judge  and  say,  Give  us,  O  Lord,  for  we  have  given 
untothee."  Armed  with  such  power,  and  such  principles, 
with  ignorance,  bigotry,  corruption  and  fanaticism  for  their 
instruments,  the  popes  waged  successful  war  with  all  the 
powers  of  Christendom,  by  their  intrigues,  and  spiritual  thun- 
ders, (or  bulls  of  excommunication,)  and  extended  the  papal 
dominion,  in  regular  succession,  until  the  reign  of  Gregory 
Vli.  :  he  by  his  triumph  over  Henry  the  IV.  of  Germany, 
placed  the  top  stone  upon  this  stupendous  fabric  of  human 
invention,  and  brought  all  Christendom  to  his  feet. 

We  have  witnessed  the  triumph  of  the  spiritual  thunders 
over  Ed\vy,  king  of  England,  and  Robert,  king  of  France  ; 
we  are  now  called  to  witness  the  spiritual  conflicts  with  Hen- 
ry III.  and  IV.  of  Germany.  During  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
the  feuds  in  Italy  ran  so  high  in  the  church,  as  to  cause  three 
popes  to  be  elected,  and  all  to  preside  at  the  same  time. 
Henry  III.  marched  into  Italy,  deposed  these  popes,  elected 
and  established  Clement  III.  and  continued  to  control  the  pa- 
pal elections  during  his  reign. 

Upon  his  death  Henry  IV.  his  son,  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
then  only  five  years  of  age  ;  but  the  government  continued 
in  the  hands  of  the  empress  his  mother,  during  his  minority. 
During  this  regency  the  popes  recovered  their  strength,  and 
the  clergy  of  Italy  had  decreed,  that  "  none  but  the  cardinals 
should  elect  the  pope."  When  Henry  came  to  the  throne, 
lie  became  immediately  engaged  in  a  Avar  with  the  rebellious 
Saxons,  and  at  the  same  time  received  a  summons  from  pope 
Alexander  II.  to  appear  before  the  tribunal  of  the  holy  see, 
and  defend  his  encroachments  upon  the  rights  of  the  church. 
Henry  treated  with  contempt  the  mandate  of  the  pope,  and 
Alexander  II.  died. 

%  In  the  year  1073,  Hildebrand  was  elected  pope,  and  took 
the  title  of  Gregory  VII.  He  commenced  his  reign,  by  pro- 
claiming warwith  his  spiritual  thunders,  against  all  the  poten- 
tates of  Christendom  ;  but  more  particularly  against  Henry, 
and  compelled  him  to  answer  submissively  to  the  demands 


HENRY    IV.    AND     GREGORY    VII.  10? 

of  pope  Alexander  II.  his  predecessor,  and  make  his  peace 
with  the  church.  Gregory  next  proposed  a  crusade  to  Hen- 
ry, in  order  to  exalt  the  papal  throne  ;  when  this  project  fail- 
ing, he  commenced  a  direct  attack  upon  Henry,  accused  him 
of  simony,  and  threatened  him  with  immediate  excommuni- 
cation, if  he  did  not  cease  to  bestow  investitures. 

Fired  with  indignation,  Henry  dismissed  the  legates,  con- 
voked an  assembly  of  the  princes,  and  dignified  clergy  at 
Worms,  who  passed  their  censures  upon  Gregory,  for  usur- 
pation, ambition,  and  scandalous  deportment  to  the  emperor, 
and  decreed  that  he  ought  to  be  deposed,  and  a  successor  ap- 
pointed. Henry  accordingly,  by  his  ambassador,  formally 
deposed  Gregory,  and  called  a  council  in  Italy,  who  unani- 
mously decreed,  that  the  pope  had  just  cause  to  depose  Hen- 
ry. Gregory  issued  the  following  bull.  "  In  the  name  of 
Almighty  God,  and  by  your  authority,  I  prohibit  Henry,  son 
of  our  emperor  Henry,  from  governing  the  Teutonic  king- 
dom, and  Italy  ;  I  release  all  Christians  from  their  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  him  ;  and  I  strictly  forbid  all  persons  from  serving 
and  attending  him  as  a  king."  Struck,  as  with  a  shock  of 
the  palsy,  as  to  his  power,  Henry  was  at  once  deserted  by  his 
friends,  and  beset  by  his  enemies,  with  no  alternative  left, 
but  to  make  his  peace  with  the  pope.  To  effect  this  he  ap- 
peared before  the  gates  of  the  pope,  where  he  was  compel- 
led to  stand  three  days,  barefoot,  in  the  month  of  January, 
clad  in  sackcloth,  and  fasting  ;  whilst  his  holiness  was  acting 
the  part  of  confessor  to  the  pious  Matilda,  duchess  of  Tus- 
cany. 

At  length  his  holiness  graciously  condescended  to  admit 
him  into  his  presence,  permit  him  to  throw  himself  at  his  feet, 
swear  obedience  to  his  holiness,  in  all  things ;  and  then  his 
holiness  most  graciously  condescended  to  grant  him  absolu- 
tion, and  restore  him  to  his  throne.  Thus  Gregory  display- 
ed to  the  world  the  maxims  of  the  church;  that  "  bishops 
are  superior  to  kings,"  and  that  it  was  the  duty  of  popes  "  to 
pull  down  the  pride  of  kings." 

Henry  returned  to  his  throne,  but  the  storm  was  not  lay- 
ed  ;  Gregory  intrigued  with  the  Germans,  to  elect  a  new 
emperor,  and  they  chose  Rodolph,  duke  of  Swabia,  and 
crowned  him  at  Meat/.  The  imperial  throne  had  now  be- 
come like  the  papal  throne  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  when 
three  popes  existed  at  one  and  the  same  time  ;  and  Gregorj 
the  balance  of  power  between  the  rivals. 


1Q8  HENRY  IA.    AND    GREGORY    Vll. 

Fired  with  indignation,  Henry  drew  his  sword,  and  struck 
a  serious  blow  upon  his  rival  in  Germany.  This  called  forth 
the  second  bull  from  Gregory,  against  Henry  ;  together  with 
a  golden  crown  as  a  present  to  his  rival.*  This  bull  closed 
with  this  extraordinary  apostrophe  to  St.  Peter,  and  St.  Paul  : 
"  Make  all  men  sensible,  that  as  you  can  bind  and  loose  eve- 
ry thing  in  heaven,  you  can  also  on  earth,  take  from,  or  give 
to,  every  one  according  to  his  deserts  :  empires,  kingdoms, 
principalities  :  let  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  age  then  feel 
your  power,  that  they  may  not  dare  to  despise  the  orders  of 
your  church  :  let  your  justice  be  so  speedily  executed  upon 
Henry,  that  nobody  may  doubt  that  he  falls  by  your  means, 
and  not  by  chance." 

Henry  assembled  immediately  a  council  of  bishops,  de- 
nounced Gregory,  caused  him  to  be  deposed,  and  the  arch- 
bishop of  Ravenna  to  be  elected,  under  the  title  of  Clement 
III.  ;  again  drew  his  sword  upon  Rodolph,his  rival,  humbled 
him  in  the  famous  battle  of  Mersberg,  dispersed  his  army, 
and  triumphed  over  his  enemy,  who  lost  his  right  hand  in 
the  action  ;  marched  to  Rome,  took  it  by  storm,  after  a  siegt 
of  two  years,  besieged  Gregory  in  the  castle  of  St.  Axsgelo, 
and  set  his  thunders  at  defiance  ;  consecrated  Clement  III. 
and  established  a  quiet  succession  over  Gregory,  who  di< 
soon  after  at  Salerno,  in  1085. 

This  bold  stroke  of  Henry,  raised  a  new  storm.  The  Ital- 
ians elected  a  second  pope  with  the  title  of  \7ictorthe  III. 
and  upon  his  death,  they  chose  Urban  II.  who  became  the 
author  of  the  first  crusade.  At  the  same  time,  Urban,  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  duchess  Matilda,  caused  Conrad  to  rebel 
against  his  father,  Henry,  and  assume  the  government  of  Ita- 
ly, in  1090  ;  who  by  the  direction  of  his  father  passed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire,  and  he  died  in  1099. 

Upcn  the  death  of  Urban,  succeeded  Paschal  II.  He,  like 
Gregory,  kindled  the  torch  afresh  ;  excommunicated  Henry  ; 
caused  his  son  Henry  the  rebel,  to  support  the  faith,  who  af- 
ter various  intrigues,  deposed  hi?  father,  reduced  him  to 
poverty  and  distress,  bv  his  savage  treatment,  and  held  the 
throne.  Thus  we  have  seen  how  by  a  steady  and  regni.ir 
succession  of  events,  the  papal  throne  has  acquired  the  most 
despotic  sovereignty,  over  the  lives,  and  consciences  of'mo.n  : 
and  how  the  ten  horns  have  agreed  "  to  give  their  power  to 
the  beast."  Rev.  xvii.  13. 

*  Accompanied  with  this  dedication — Petradedit  Pc(ro,  Pctjus  ilia 
derna  Rodoipho. 


PETER     THE    HERMIT.  109 

Would  you  know  the  origin,  and  character  of  this  power, 
read  the  xiii.  chapter  of  St.  John's  Revelation. 


CHAP.  VIII. 

The  church — flrst  crusade — chivalry,  and  the  monastic  rage. 

A  detail  of  the  events  of  the  subsequent  reigns,  would  be 
only  a  continuation  of  the  same  feuds,  and  the  same  black  ca- 
talogue of  crimes.  The  popes  claimed  and  exercised  the 
supremacy,  through  a  period  of  more  than  four  centuries, 
compelling  kings  and  emperors  to  hold  the  stirrup  when  they 
mounted  their  horse  ;  issuing  their  bulls  of  excommunica- 
tion, and  bringing  them  to  their  feet.  The  great  subject 
which  confirmed  this  supremacy,  now  claims  our  attention. 

We  noticed  the  plan  of  Gregory  VII.  (during  the  perse- 
cutions of  Henry  IV.)  for  a  general  crusade  to  redeem  the 
holy  sepulchre,  at  Jerusalem,  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels. 
This  failed  at  that  time  ;  but  was  now  renewed  by  Peter  the 
hermit,  who  had  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  on  his 
return,  came  over  the  Rhine  out  of  Germany,  and  with  a  cru- 
cifix in  his  hand,  proclaimed  the  first  crusade,  throughout  the 
southern  kingdoms.  Urban  II.  spread  the  flame,  by  assem- 
bling a  council  of  more  than  30, 000  priests,  and  laymen,  who 
all  declared  war  against  the  infidels. 

This  first  council,  and  Peter,  kindled  the  fire  ;  and  a  se- 
cond council  of  the  great  prelates,  and  nobles,  spread  the 
flame,  by  a  decree,  as  if  from  immediate  inspiration,  "it  is  the 
voice  of  God."  This  under  the  banner  of  the  cross,  became 
the  rallying  point  in  the  exploits  of  this  mad  adventure. 
Kings  and  nobles  assembled  their  vassals,  mortgaged,  or  sold 
their  estates,  (when  it  became  necessary)  to  raise  money, 
and  embarked  in  the  war.  Peter,  and  Walter  the  money- 
less, led  the  van,  with  about  300,000  men,  through  Hungary 
to  Constantinople,  trusting  to  the  miraculous  interposition  of 
heaven,  for  subsistence  and  supplies.  When  this  failed,  they 
robbed  and  plundered  the  Jews,  as  the  murderers  of  Christ, 
plundering  and  butchering  all  such  as  refused  baptism  :  when 
this  resource  failed,  they  plundered  the  countries  through 
which  they  passed,  until  the  inhabitants,  armed  in  their  own 
defence,  destroyed  almost  all  this  banditti,  and  left  Peter,  on 

10 


no 


CONQUEST    OF    JERUSALEM. 


his  arrival  upon  the  plains  of  Constantinople,  the  starving 
remnant  of  about  20,000  ;  here  joined  by  numerous  other 
adventurers,  they  swarmed  into  the  plains  of  Asia,  where 
they  were  all  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Sultan  of  Nice  ;  Walter 
was  slain,  and  Peter  escaped  to  Constantinople. 

Succeeding  swarms  poured  forth  from  Europe.  *The  em- 
peror of  Constantinople  favoured  what  he  could  not  resist, 
and  gave  the  Christians  a  free  passage,  as  they  arrived,  whose 
regular  force  amounted  to  about  100,000  horse  and  600,000 
foot,  when  assembled  on  the  plains  of  Asia. 

They  subdued  the  Sultan  of  Nice,  or  Syria,  and  the  sultan 
of  Antioch,  broke  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  minor,  en- 
tered Syria,  and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  then  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  Saracens,  or  caliphs  of  Egypt. 

Greatly  diminished  at  this  time  by  famine,  sword,  pesti- 
lence, and  every  calamity,  they  were  not  equal  in  number  to 
the  garrison  they  had  summoned.  The  resistance  was  firm  ; 
yet  in  five  weeks  they  entered  Jerusalem, by  assault,  gave  the 
city  up  to  pillage  and  slaughter,  and  exhibited  a  scene  of  cru- 
elty, barbarity,  carnage  and  distress,  too  shocking  to  be  con- 
ceived of  or  described  ;  and  when  neither  age  nor  sex  re« 
mained,toglutthe  vengeance  of  their  swords,  they  approached 
the  sepulchre,  their  hands  yet  warm  with  the  blood  of  the 
aged,  the  infant,  and  the  mother,  and  paid  their  devotions  at 
the  shrine  of  the  Prince  of  Peace.  What  madness  will  not 
enthusiasm  kindle,  and  support  in  the  breast  of  man  ! 

Godfrey,  king  of  France,  was  chosen  king  of  Jerusalem. 
Urban  II.  having  lived  to  see  the  triumph  of  his  plan,  died 
and  left  the  papacy  to  Paschal  II.  During  this  period,  the 
partizans  of  the  popes  and  emperors,  took  the  names  of 
Guelphs  and  Ghibelines,  and  became  distinguished  in  the 
feuds  of  Europe.  Three  successive  crusades  of  the  same 
stamp  and  style,  distracted  Europe  about  two  centuries.  As 
the  madness  and  power  of  the  popes,  as  well  as  the  low,  igno- 
rant, degraded  and  enthusiastic  state  of  Europe,  are  more  ful- 
ly displayed  in  this  adventure,  than  the  pen  or  the  pencil 
could  express,  I  will  pass  over  the  details  of  the  other  two 
crusades,  together  with  the  dark,  wretched  and  distracted  pe- 
riod of  about  four  centuries,  in  which  nothing  appears,  but 
the  blackest  catalogue  of  crimes,  murders,  and  assassinations', 
sanctioned  by  the  intrigues  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  strife, 
competition  and  power.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  struggles 
for  supremacy,  between  the  popes  and  sovereigns  ef  the  sev- 


CHIVALRY.  Hi 

eral  kingdoms  ;  the  struggles  for  succession,  claims  of  juris- 
diction and  conquest ;  together  with  the  contests  between  the 
cities  and  barons  ;  kings  and  barons  :  and  civil  wars,  fill  up 
this  whole  period,  with  a  catalogue  of  crimes  of  the  blackest 
dye,  and  exhibit  such  scenes  of  rapine  and  cruelty,  as  nothing 
could  produce  or  tolerate,  but  these  ages  of  darkness,  this 
mighty  struggle  of  religion  with  superstition,  reason  with 
madness,  and  refinement  with  barbarism. 

A  narrative  of  these  scenes,  with  the  achievments  of  the 
particular  characters,  and  the  ev-ents  as  they  occurred,  can 
give  no  adequate  idea  of  the  reality  :  language  cannot  de- 
scribe, the  pencil  cannot  express,  the  distresses  of  these  king- 
doms during  this  eventful  period.  But  the  crusades  laid  the 
foundation  ;  and  by  the  aid  of  chivalry,  broke  the  charm,  and 
opened  the  way  for  commerce  and  letters,  to  accomplish  the 
refinement  of  Europe. 

Chivalry,  which  for  its  excesses  became  the  subject  of  rid- 
icule^in  later  ages,  and  called  forth  the  keen  satire  of  Cer- 
vantes, (author  of  Don  Quixotte,)  had  its  origin  in  the  elev- 
enth century  ;  sprang  from  the  purest  motives,  had  for  its  ob- 
ject the  most  laudable  purposes,  and  was  accompanied  with 
the  most  beneficial  effects,  until  its  virtues  were  lost  in  its  ex- 
cesses and  extremes.  Valor,  humanity,  courtesy,  justice, 
virtue,  chastity  and  honor,  were  the  characteristic  principles 
of  chivalry  :  religion,  without  its  enthusiastic  zeal,  would 
have  been  one  of  its  shining  virtues  ;  but  with  this  zeal,  be- 
came one  of  its  excesses.  Even  kings  paid  the  highest  trib- 
ute of  respect  to  knighthood. 

Chivalry  was  regarded  as  the  school  of  honorable  refine- 
ment, encouraged  the  most  delicate  intercourse  between  the 
sexes,  and  enforced  the  nicest  observance  of  all  their  engage- 
ments :  as  the  standard  of  valor,  religion,  love  and  virtue,  its 
influence  was  irresistible. 

Chivalry  rescued  woman  from  the  fangs  of  degraded  weak- 
ness, oppression  and  wretchedness  ;  and  paved  the  way  for 
all  the  enjoyments  she  has  since  obtained.  When  chivalry 
ran  mad,  Cervantes  destroyed  it  with  his  pen  :  then  com- 
merce, literature  and  the  arts,  became  the  reformers  of  man- 
ners, and  brought  civil  society  4ro  its  present  state  of  refine- 
ment. Even  the  crusades  themselves,  were  nothing  more 
nor  less,  than  chivalry  upon  a  large  scale,  and  produced  the 
same  effects  upon  society. 

The  monastic  life  was  a  steady  opposer  to  chivalry  :  this 


112 


MONKERY. 


ran  into  the  opposite  extreme  :  this  took  its  rise  amongst  the 
Christians  in  the  east,  and  extended  throughout  the  Christian 
world.  Not  only  solitude  and  celibacy  with  all  their  rigors, 
became  general ;  but  the  extravagant  austerities  of  the  monks 
threw  a  cloud  over  Christendom. 

In  order  to  strip  human  nature  of  its  humanity,  they  took 
up  their  abode  in  dens  and  caves,  amongst  the  beasts  of  the 
forest,  as  wild,  naked,  and  savage  as  themselves.  They 
dwelt  in  the  clefts  of  cragged  rocks  :  the  more  distressing  and 
tormenting  their  situation,  the  higher  the  marks  of  sancity. 
Some  styled  Stylites,  took  their  stand  in  some  conspicuous 
position,  upon  the  top  of  some  lofty  pillar,  where  they  stood 
night  and  day,  for  years  ;  through  all  the  extremes  of  the 
weather  and  the  seasons  ;  whilst  thousands,  and  tens  of  thou- 
sands, were  immured  in  their  monastic  cells,  secluded  from 
thoir  friends,  society  and  the  world. 

Society,  have  long  since  decided,  which  of  the  two,  the 
knights  or  the  monks,  became  the  most  corrupt  ;  were  guilty 
of  the  greatest  excesses,  and  became  the  most  obnoxious  to 
men,  and  to  God — but  I  forbear  :  the  extremes  of  all  the 
virtues  become  corruption  :  and  the  example  of  former  ages, 
ought  to  serve  as  beacons,  to  guard  us  against  the  same  evils, 


CHAP.  IX. 

England  through  the  reign  of  William  L- — William  II. — Hen- 
ry L — Germany  and  France  to  the  second  crusade. 

WILLIAM  the  conqueror,  by  his  conciliatory  deportment, 
soon  found  himself  lirmly  seated  upon  the  English  throne,  and 
ventured  to  pay  a  visit  to  his  friends  in  Normandy.  This 
proved  unseasonable  :  he  had  founded  his  usurpation  upon 
the  ruins  of  English  liberty,  and  secured  it,  as  he  supposed, 
by  placing  in  the  government  of  both  church  and  state  his 
ohosen  Norman  friends,  to  the  utter  exclusion  of  every  Eng- 
lishman. 

This  had  sown  the  seeds  of  disaffection,  which  broke  out 
into  open  violence,  as  soon  as  the  conqueror  had  withdrawn  ; 
and  England\ecame  a  theatre  of  insurrection  and  civil  war. 
Foreign  alliances  were  formed,  and  a  general  revolution  con- 
templated. William,  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his  kingdom, 
hastened  back,  ravaged  England  with  fire  and  sword, 


WILLIAM  II.  113 

until  he  had  quelled  the  rebellion.  With  great  severity  he 
confiscated  all  the  estates  of  the  insurgents,  established  a  des- 
potic sovereignty,  and  an  ecclesiastical  independence  in  Eng- 
land, and  set  the  pope  at  defiance,  by  arresting  and  imprison- 
ing, (beyond  sea,)  Odo,  earl  of  Kent,  in  the  character  of 
Bishop  of  Bayeaux  ;  who  was  intriguing  for  the  papacy. 
William  determined  to  humble  the  spirit  of  these  haughty 
Britons,  by  not  only  placing  all  power  in  the  hands  of  his 
Normans,  but  by  rooting  ,out  even  their  language.  For  this 
purpose  he  caused  the  Norman  language  to  become  the  lan- 
guage of  the  court,  and  of  all  records  ;  to  be  taught  in  all 
the  schools,  and  become  the  language  of  the  bar  ;  caused  a 
survey  of  all  estates  in  England,  which  instituted  doomsday- 
book,  (so  called)  which  is  of  value  to  this  day. 

William  humbled  a  rebellion  headed  by  his  son  Robert,  in 
Normandy  ;  chastised  Philip  I.  king  of  France,  for  an  inso- 
lent witticism  at  his  expense,  by  carrying  fire  and  sword  into 
his  dominions  ;  and  died  from  a  bruise,  received  in  this  mad 
career,  1087.  William  left  the  duchy  of  Normandy  to  Rob- 
ert, England  to  William,  and  to  Henry,  his  youngest  son,  the 
possessions  of  his  mother,  Matilda,  daughter  of  Baldwin,  earl 
of  Flanders. 

William  II. pursued  the  policy  o-f  his  father,  in  his  severi- 
ty towards  his  English  subjects  ;^ttl  by  the  suppression  of 
several  insurrections,  increased  dHBliumiliation.  He  hum. 
bled  the  Scotch  and  Welch,  carr^Hiis  arms  into  Normandy, 
where  he  met  with  a  perilous  escape  on  his  return,  purchas- 
ed Normandy  of  his  brother  Robert,  for  ten  thousand  marks, 
took  possession  of  the  duchy,  and  his  brother  became  an  ad- 
venturer in  the  first  crusade,  1096.  He  humbled  St.  Anselm, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  set  the  pope,  Urban  II.  at  defi- 
ance, and  took  the  prelacy  into  his  owniiands  about  five  years. 

He  restored  the  crown  of  Scotland,  Jjy  his  arms,  to  Mal- 
colm III.  the  rightful  heir  ;  expelled  the  Danes,  from  the 
islmd  of  Anglesea  :  who  have  not  since  invaded  England.  He 
built  the  Tower,  London  bridge,  and  Westminster  hall  ;  last- 
ing monuments  of  the  greatness  of  his  mind.  William  xvas 
upon  the  noint  of  embarking  for  France,  to  take  possession  of 
the  nrovinces  of  Guienne  and  Poictiers,  by  purchase  ;  (a  sale 
made  to  raise  money  to  embark  in  the  fi"st  crusade,)  when  he 
was  shot  by  Walter  Tyrrel,  a  French  gentleman,  who  accom- 
panied tho  kiiig  upon  a  hunting  match  in  his  new  forest,  1 100. 

William  died  without  issue.     His  brother  Henry  stepped 
10* 


HENKY    J» 


into  the  government,  and  was  proclaimed  king.  Henry  secu- 
red the  throne,  by  promising  to  restore  the  laws  of  Edward 
the  confessor  ;  restoring  at  the  same  time  the  Archbishop 
Anselm  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  ;  and  marrying  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Malcolm  III.  king  of  Scotland  and  niece  of  Edgar 
Atheling.  These  wise  measures  secured  the  throne  to  Henry, 
ii^uinst  the  disaffected  Norman  barons,  and  against  the  inva- 
sion of  his  brother  Robert,  upon  his  return  from  the  crusade- 
Henry,  by  his  intrigues,  took  advantage  of  the  feuds  in 
Normandy,  seized  Robert,  conveyed  him  to  England,  took 
possession  of  the  duchy,  and  suffered  his  brother  to  languish 
twenty-eight  years,  in  the  castle  of  Cardiff,  where  he  died. 
Henry,  by  his  liberality  and  intrigues,  held  at  bay  the  claims 
of  William,  son  of  Robert,  upon  the  duchy  of  Normandy,  and 
by  his  sword  established  his  dominion.  The  loss  of  his  son 
William,  on  his  return  from  Normandy,  was  made  up  to  Hen- 
ry in  some  measure,  by  a  son  of  Geoffry  Plantagenet,  eld- 
est son  of  Count  Anjou,  and  husband  of  Matilda,  his  only 
daughter. 

Henry  made  this  grandson  his  heir,  by  causing  his  English 
and  Norman  subjects  to  swear  fealty  to  him  ;  then  took  up 
his  residence  in  Normandy,  where  he  died,  aged  sixty-seven, 
having  reigned  thirty-five  years.  Henry  was  a  learned,  wise 
and  valiant  prince. 

Henry  promised  to  restore  the  laws  of  Edward  the  confes- 
sor, as  a  guarantee  to  tmBp  Saxon  liberties  ;  but  as  soon  as 
he  found  himself  firmly  seated  upon  the  throne,  he  confirmed 
the  policy  of  William  I.  and  established  the  feudal  system, 
with  all  its  rigors,  upon  the  ruins  of  Saxon  liberty  in  England  ; 
and  by  his  confiscations,  arid  attainders  seized  ©n  great  pos- 
sessions. With  these  he  enriched  the  Norman  barons,  whom 
he  protected  by  his  military  force,  and  with  whom  he  formed 
a  national  assembly  ;  creatures  of  his  power,  and  creatures 
of  his  will,  who  riveted  the  chains  of  slavery  upon  every  free 
born  Englishman. 

Despotism  now  commenced  the  reign  of  terror  in  England  ; 
and  avarice,  with  all  her  corruptions,  augmented  the  distress- 
es of  the  scene,  'and  laid  the  foundation  for  all  the  future 
struggles  of  prerogative,  and  privilege,  which  cost  England 
90  mnch  blood,  and  treasure,  to  recover  her  Saxon  liberties, 
in  after  days.  Henry  carried  on  successful  war  with  Lewis 
VI.  of  France,  styled  the  gross,  who  had  succeeded  Philip 
the  I.  and  who,  after  a  wise  and  popular  reign, 


leaving;  the  tl 


CASTLE    OP    WEINSBURG.  115 


saving  the  throne  of  Guienne,  and  Poictou,  to  his  son.  Lewis 
VII. 

Henry  V.  of  Germany,  having  left  no  issue,  Lothario,  duke 
of  Saxe  Supplemberg,  was  elected,  and  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  He  in  his  turn  marched  into  Italy,  settled  a  quar- 
rel between  the  rival  popes,  Innocent  II.  and  Anocletus  II,  ; 
called  Innocent  out  of  France,  and  placed  him  in  the  chair  ; 
was  crowned  by  the  pope,  emperor  ofGermany,  and  support- 
ed Innocent  against  all  the  wealth  and  force  of  Anacletus, 
who  died  of  grief  and  mortification. 

Lothario  died  on  his  way  to  Germany,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Conrad  III.  duke  of  Franconia,  and  nephew  to  Henry  V. 
The  family  of  Guelphs,  under  Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria,  com- 
menced a  claim  upon  the  imperial  crown.  The  contest  was 
sharp  ;  Henry  soon  died,  but  his  brother  Guelph  prosecuted 
the  claim  with  his  sword.  The  pope  espoused  the  cause  of 
Henry  ;  which  fixed  the  name  of  Guelph  to  the  partizans  of 
the  popes. 

Frederick,  duke  of  Swabia,  brother  of  the  emperor,  de- 
fended Conrad.  He  was  born  at  the  village  of  Heighibeline, 
which  gave  to  his  party  the  name  of  Ghibelines  ;  and  these 
epithets  continued  to  distinguish  the  parties  of  the  popes,  and 
emperors,  in  all  their  after  struggles.  This  contest  gave  rise 
to  an  anecdote  worthy  of  notice. 

Conrad  besieged  Guelph,  and  his  followers,  in  the  castle  of 
Weinsburg,  who  being  about  to  surrender  at  discretion,  the 
dutches  requested  permission,  that  she  and  the  women  might 
retire,  with  what  they  could  carry,  to  a  place  of  safety.  The 
emperor  granted  the  request ;  and  to  his  astonishment,  be- 
held the  dutchess  march  out  with  her  husband  upon  her  back, 
together  with  all  the  women,  staggering  along  under  the 
weight  of  their  husbands.  Conrad  applauded  that  conjugal 
affection  which  had  saved  their  husbands  from  the  vengeance 
of  his  sword. 

During  these  scenes  in  Germany,  a  revolution  was  at- 
tempted in  the  government  at  Rome,  and  quelled  by  pope 
EugeninsIII.  A  second  crusade  was  preaehed  by  St.  Ber- 
nard, against  the  Saracens  ;  another  against  the  Moors  in 
Spain,  and  another  by  the  Saxons  in  Germany,  against  the 
pagans  of  the  north.  The  last  was  a  war  of  extermination, 
without  one  solitary  convert.  Conrad  died  1152,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Frederick,  duke  of  Swabia,  styled 
Barbarossa. 


116  SECOND    CliUSADE. 

During  the  civil  war  in  Germany,  Lewis  VII.  king  of 
France,  in  the  midst  of  his  feudal  wars,  caused  the  town  of 
Vitri  to  be  burnt,  which  consumed  1300  persons  in  one 
church,  who  had  fleti  to  this  sanctuary  for  safety.  This  hor- 
rid act  caused  such  remorse  in  the  mind  of  Lewis,  as  led  him 
to  favor  the  second  crusade,  to  atone  for  his  cruelty. 

St.  Bernard,  like  Peter  the  hermit,  set  at  defiance  the  re- 
monstrances of  Suger,  abbot  of  St.  Dennis,  and  primate  of 
France  ;  proclaimed  the  crusade  throughout  France,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  and  drew  in  his  train,  Lewis,  king  of  France, 
Conrad  III.  emperor  of  Germany,  and  Frederick,  duke  ol 
Swabia,  (afterwards  emperor)  with  the  knights  of  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  generally.  Each  army  could  muster 
70,000  knights  in  complete  armor,  and  the  whole  force  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Russell,  amounted  to  1,600,000. 

Here  the  old  scenes  of  the  first  crusade  were  renewed  ; 
the  same  sufferings  by  the  way,  the  same  excesses  ;  and  the 
same  disasters  in  Asia  minor.  Conrad,  emperor  of  Germany, 
met  with  a  total  overthrow  by  the  sultan  of  Iconium  ;  fled  to 
Antioch  for  safety  ;  thence  to  Jerusalem  as  a  pilgrim  ;  and 
thence  back  to  Germany  as  a  fugitive  in  distress. 

Lewis  VII.  met  with  a  similar  overthrow  near  Laodicea  ; 
lost  his  queen  by  the  amours  of  the  prince  of  Antioch  ;  fled 
to  Jerusalem  as  a  pilgrim  ;  and  back  to  France,  with  a  few 
ra^cd  followers,  in  distress  and  despair. 

The  divorce  of  queen  Elenor,  caused  her  marriage  with 
Henry  Plantagenat,  duke  of  Normandy,  count  ofAnjou  snd 
Maine,  and  presumptive  heir  to  the  crown  of  England,  who* 
carried  with  her  the  provinces  of  Poictou,  andGuienne  :  all 
which  laid  the  foundations  for  the  future  wars  between 
France  and  England. 


CHAP.     X. 

England  during  the  reign  of  Stephen — Henry  II. — the  church, 
with  a  continuation  of  the  second  crusade — Germany,  and 
the  third  crusade. 

UPON  the  death  of  Henry  of  England,  Stephen,  count  of 
Boulogne,  and  grandson  of  William  the  conqueror,  by  his 
daughter  Adela,  seized  upon  the  throne,  to  the  exclusion  of 


ENGLISH    BAROXS.  1  f 7 

Matilda,  and  her  young  son  Henry.  The  barons  and  clergy 
supported  Stephen,  as  being  better  adapted  to  the  necessity 
of  the  times,  than  a  woman,  and  an  infant.  Stephen,  in  his* 
turn  granted  them  every  indulgence  consistent  with  the  safe- 
ty of  his  crown  ;  even  to  coin  money,  erect  castles,  and  td 
garrison  them  with  their  own  troops. 

These  indulgencies  not  only  weakened,  and  almost  de- 
stroyed the  authority  of  the  crown,  but  laid  the  foundation 
for  those  wars  of  the  barons,  which  afterwards  drenched  Eng- 
land with  blood.  In  the  midst  of  this  anarchy,  David,  king 
of  Scotland,  invaded  England  with  a  powerful  army,  to  en- 
force the  claims  of  his  niece  Matilda  ;  was  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  the  Standard,  with  great  slaughter,  and  made  his  es- 
cape into  Scotland. 

Matilda  next  landed  in  England  from  Normandy,  asserted 
her  own  rights,  and  kindled  a  civil  war,  which  raged  with 
such  violence  as  to  produce  a  general  famine,  that  greatly 
distressed  the  kingdom.  Stephen  was  taken  prisoner,  load- 
ed with  irons,  and  thrown  into  prison.  The  storm  was  ap- 
parently hushed.  Stephen  was  called  from  his  prison,  and 
exchanged  for  Robert,  the  brother  and  champion  of  Matilda, 
and  the  war  was  rekindled.  This  again  was  soon  quelled  by 
mutual  consent,  and  Matilda  returned  to  Normandy. 

Prince  Henry,  now  sixteen  years  of  age,  went  over  into 
England,  thence  into  Scotland,  thence  into  Normandy  again  ; 
and  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  he  took  possession  of  the 
provinces  of  Anjou  and  Maine,  espoused  Elenor  the  divorc- 
ed queen  of  Lewis  VII.  king  of  France,  who  brought  him 
Guienne  and  Poictou,  and  placed  him  upon  a  foundation,  to 
recover  his  claims  upon  the  crown  ofEngland. 

Two  years  after  this,  Henry  invaded  England  ;  the  barons 
espoused  his  cause,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  alarming  state  of 
the  parties,  the  claims  of  Henry  were  settled  with  Stephen, 
by  an  agreement ;  that  Henry  should  succeed  to  the  throne 
upon  the  death  of  Stephen,  and  he  withdrew  from  the  king- 
dom. Stephen  died  the  next  year,  and  Henry  succeeded  to 
the  throne. 

The  wretchedness  of  England  at  this  time  was  truly  dis- 
tressing ;  famine,  distress  and  desolation,  raged  on  all  sides  ; 
multitudes  fled  into  exile,  others  built  sorry  huts  in  the 
churchyards  ;  took  refuge  in  these  sanctuaries  of  the  dead. 
and  fed  on  pulse,  roots,  dogs  and  horses  :  whole  villages  were 
deserted,  and  thousands  died  of  hunger. 

Henry  gave  a  new  face  to  this  wretched  country.      He 


118  THOMAS    A    BECKET. 

dismissed  all  the  foreign  mercenaries  of  Stephen,  and  restor- 
ed the  charter  of  liberty  of  Henry  I.  ;  by  which  means  ail 
this  mighty  storm  was  hushed  into  a  general  calm  ;  but  the 
war  which  broke  out  between  Henry,  and  Lewis  VII.  of 
France,  led  Henry  to  seethe  unwieldly  mode  of  waging  war 
(according  to  the  feudal  system)  by  means  of  the  barons,  and 
their  vassals.  He  therefore  levied  a  tax  of  three  pounds  up- 
on each  knight's  fee ;  with  this  money  he  raised  the  first 
independent  army,  and  brought  the  war  to  a  speedy  close. 

Henry  next  turned  his  attention  to  the  church,  where  he 
found  the  sale  of  indulgencies,  and  the  composition  of  pen- 
ances, raised  more  annual  revenue  than  the  crown  :  he  set 
himself  to  work  to  correct  this  :  a  task  indeed  !  The  church 
had  become  the  sink  of  corruption,  and  claimed  exemption 
from  all  civil  jurisdiction  :  murders,  robberies,  arid  assassina- 
tions, were  committed  daily  by  ecclesiastics,  with  impuni- 
ty ;  more  than  one  hundred  were  proved  upon  men  in  holy 
orders,  since  his  accession,  without  even  an  inquiry  into 
them. 

To  effect  this  great  object,  the  correction  of  the  abuses  of 
the  mitre,  Henry  advanced  Thomas  a  Becket,  his  chancellor, 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury  ;  the  first  instance  of  English  pro- 
motion, since  the  days  of  William  the  conqueror. 

Becket  was  a  splendid  courtier,  gay  in  his  amusements, 
fond  of  diversions,  a  jovial  sportsman  ;  yet  he  knew  how  to 
render  his  industry  useful  to  his  master.  Becket  knew  the 
motives  of  the  king  ;  felt  his  elevated  station,  and  determin- 
ed to  make  the  most  of  it.  He  threw  off  the  character  of  the 
chancellor,  and  put  on  the  character  of  the  saint  :  assumed 
the  severest  monkish  austerity,  and  mortification  ;  wore 
sackcloth  next  to  his  skin  ;  and  became  a  beast  of  dirt  and 
vermin  ;  his  food  was  bread  and  water ;  and  his  back  was 
often  lacerated  with  penitential  scourgings.  Daily  upon  his 
knees,  in  imitation  of  the  Saviour  of  men,  he  washed  the  feet 
of  thirteen  beggars,  and  dismissed  them  with  presents.  The 
sanctity,  and  mortification  of  the  holy  primate,  together  with 
his  sacred  devojtions,  all  became  the  wonder  and  admiration 
of  the  nation. 

The  knight  of  the  cross,  in  this  citadel  of  sanctity,  levied 
war  upon  the  king.  A  parish  clerk  in  Worcestershire  first 
debauched  a  gentleman's  daughter,  and  then  murdered  the 
father.  Henry  demanded  that  the  offender  should  be  deliv- 
ered up  to  the  magistrate.  Becket  claimed  the  privileges  of 


THOMAS    A    BECKET.  119 

the  church,  and  demanded  that  he  should  only  be  degraded. 
Henry  summoned  a  council  to  try  the  question  ;  they  were 
unsound.  He  assembled  another  at  Clarendon,  composed 
of  bishops  and  nobles  ;  submitted  the  great  question,  which 
produced  what  was  called  the  constitutions  of  Clarendon. 
Henry  ordered  the  constitutions  to  be  reduced  to  printing, 
and  signed,  and  sealed  by  all  the  prelates,  with  a  promise  to 
observe  them  legally ,  and  in  goodfaith,  and  without  fraud,  or 
reserve,  and  sealed  the  whole  by  an  oath.  With  all  this,  the 
primate  Becket  was  obliged  (though  with  great  reluctance) 
to  comply. 

The  copy  of  the  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  as  signed, 
sealed,  and  sworn  to,  Henry  sent  to  the  pope,  Alexander  III. 
for  the  ratification  of  his  holiness.  The  pope  abrogated, 
annulled,  and  rejected  them.  This  kindled  afresh  the  auste- 
rities of  Becket,  and  he  declined  all  ecclesiastical  duties,  until 
he  had  received  absolution  from  the  pope.  This  he  soon 
obtained,  and  then  gave  full  scope  to  his  obstinate  ambition. 

CONSTITUTIONS    OF    CLARENDON. 

Voted,  without  opposition,  that  no  chief  tenant  of  the 
crown,  snail  be  excommunicated,  or  have  his  lands  put  under 
an  interdict,  without  the  king's  consent  ;  that  no  appeals  in 
spiritual  causes  shall  be  carried  before  the  holy  see,  nor  any 
clergyman  be  suffered  to  depart  the  kingdom,  unless  with 
the  king's  permission  ;  that  laymen  shall  not  be  accused  in 
spiritual  courts,  except  by  legal,  and  respectable  promoters 
and  witnesses  ;  and  lastly,  that  churchmen,  accused  of  any 
crime,  shall  be  tried  in  the  civil  courts. 

The  rejection  ofthese  articles  by  the  pope,  and  the  haugh- 
ty overbearing  spirit  of  Becket,  called  forth  the  energies  of 
Henry.  He  summoned  Becket  to  give  an  account  of  the 
revenues  of  all  the  abbies,  prelacies,  and  baronies,  which 
were  subject  to  his  management,  as  chancellor.  This  kind- 
led the  fire  ;  Becket  intrenched  himself  again  more  strongly 
in  his  citadel  of  austerity,  and  sanctity,  defied  the  arm  of  the 
law,  strictly  prohibited  all  his  suffragans  to  assist  in  any  man- 
ner, in  any  trial  against  him  ;  put  himself  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  vicar  of  Christ,  and  made  his  appeal  to  his  holiness, 
in  the  face  of  the  constitutions  which  he  had  signed,  sealed, 
and  sworn  to  obey.  This  was  his  style  :  "  The  indignation 
«f  a  great  monarch,  such  as  Henry,  with  his  sword,  can  only 


120  THOMAS  A  BECKET. 

kill  the  body  ;  while  that  of  the  church,  entrusted  to  the  pri- 
mate, can  kill  the  soul,  and  throw  the  disobedient  into  infinite 
and  eternal  perdition." 

Becket  upon  this  retired  to  France,  where  he  was  honor- 
ed, and  distinguished  by  the  pope,  and  other  potentates.  The 
exclamations  of  the  exile,  filled  Henry  with  anxiety,  and  all 
Christendom  with  intrigue,  about  six  years.  The  primate 
triumphed  over  Henry,  so  far,  that  he  was  honorably  restor- 
ed to  his  see  of  Canterbury,  and  enjoyed  his  usual  honors. 

Henry  had  retired  into  Normandy  during  this  controversy, 
and  Becket  rode  in  triumph  through  England,  and  proclaimed 
war  against  Henry,  with  renewed  violence,  threatening  with 
spiritual  thunders,  all  the  prelates  who  had  assisted  at  the 
coronation  of  the  king.  All  this  was  more  than  the  high 
spirit  of  Henry  could  bear  ;  and  he  exclaimed,  "  Will  my 
servants  still  leave  me  exposed  to  the  insolence  of  this  un- 
grateful and  imperious  priest  ?"  This  armed  four  of  the 
king's  household,  who  passed  over  into  England,  and  Becket' 
fell  by  the  hand  of  the  assassin. 

The  death  of  the  primate  filled  Henry  with  more  distress, 
than  his  life  ;  he  shut  himself  up  three  days,  denying  himself 
all  sustenance,  as  well  as  the  light  of  the  sun  ;  and  by  a  so- 
lemn embassy,  attempted  to  appease  the  vengeance  of  the 
pope,  by  protesting  his  innocence. 

His  holiness  listened  graciously  ;  whilst  all  Europe  re- 
sounded with  the  praises  of  the  holy  martyr,  whose  sacred 
tomb  wrought  all  manner  of  miracles  ;  restored  the  dead  to 
life,  both  men,  women  and  children  ;  dogs,  horses  and  cows  ; 
and  was  loaded  with  presents  from  all  parts  of  Christendom, 
to  obtain  his  intercessions  in  heaven  ;  this  tomb  received  the 
devotions  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  pilgrims  in  one 
year. 

In  the  midst  of  this  religious  frenzy,  Henry  undertook  the 
Conquest  of  Ireland,  then  in  its  most  rude  and  barbarous  state  ; 
governed  by  the  laws  of  force,  which  were  executed  by  mur- 
ders, assassination,  and  pillage. 

After  the  conquest  of  Ireland,  Henry  repaired  to  Nor- 
mandy to  meet  the  pope's  legate  ;  settled  his  peace  with  the 
church,  by  clearing  himself  by  oath,  from  all  concern  in 
Becket's  death  ;  made  some  concessions  which  were  satisfac- 
tory, and  this  storm  was  hushed  ;  but  another  sprung  up  in 
its  place. 

His  son,  prince  Henry,  demanded  accession  to  the  throne 


HENRY    AT    THE    TOMB    OF    BEGKET.  121 

of  England  or  Normandy  ;  Elenor  his  queen,  and  his  two 
younger  sons,  backed  by  the  king  of  France,  then  Lewis  VII. 
supported  the  claim.  This  threw  Henry  into  a  new  dilem- 
ma, and  brought  him  to  the  feet  of  that  sovereign  pontiff,  (to 
pray  out  thunders  upon  his  enemies,)  whose  power  he  had 
so  boldly  withstood  in  the  affair  of  Becket. 

Alexander  III.  poured  out  his  thunders  most  powerfully  ; 
but  without  effect.  Henry  drew  the  sword,  and  to  prepare 
the  public  mind  for  the  conflict,  he  did  penance  for  the  death 
of  Thomas  a  Becket,  by  going  barefoot  to  the  tomb  of  Beck- 
et, and  watching  the  holy  relics,  one  whole  day  and  night,  ex- 
posing his  naked  back  to  the  flagellations  of  the  monks,  which 
they,  remembering  the  old  grudge,  put  on  severely.  He 
then  received  absolution,  and  the  reconciliation  of  heaven 
was  announced  by  a  signal  victory  obtained  that  day,  by  his 
generals,  over  the  Scots  ;  their  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
tranquillity  restored.  What  cannot  ignorance  and  supc.rsii- 
•ti on  perform!  This  peace  in  England,  was  followed  by  a 
peace  in  Normandy.  Henry  now  floated  quietly  upon  the 
tide  of  superstition,  and  enacted  many  wise  and  salutary  laws, 
for  the  good  of  his  people,  and  the  security  of  his  crown. 

Even  Lewis  VII.  king  of  France,  under  the  influence  of 
fanaticism,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Becket's  tomb,  to  obtain 
his  intercession  in  heaven,  for  the  recovery  of  his  sick  son. 
Philip  recovered,  and  the  next  year  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
upon  the  death  of  his  father,  and  took  the  title  of  Augustus. 

Philip  II.  excited,  and  supported  an  insurrection  in  Hen- 
ry's son  against  his  father,  which  humbled  his  power,  broke 
his  spirits,  and  brought  him  to  his  grave,  at  the  castle  of  Chi- 
non  in  Normandy,  in  the  fifty-eighth  year  of  his  age.  The 
whole  reign  of  Henry  had  fanned  that  fire  of  liberty,  which 
was  so  immediately  connected,  in  after  days,  with  privilege, 
and  prerogative,  and  restored  the  Saxon  privileges. 

The  dependence  of  the  emperors  of  Germany,  upon  the 
popes,  for  the  crown  of  the  Romans,  (beneficium  Romani 
Imperil,)  and  the  independence  they  claimed  as  sovereigns 
of  the  German  empire,  kept  up  a  constant  collision  between 
the  two  sovereignties  ;  occasioned  all  those  quarrels  which, 
have  blackened  the  annals  of  both  parties,  and  rendered  (he 
popes  so  contemptible  ;  and  called  forth  the  sv/ord  of  the 
Othos,  and  Henrys  to  do  themselves  justice,  and  humble  the 
haughty  pontiffs. 

Adrian  IV.  a  mendicant  friar,  an  Englishman,  and  son  of 
11 


122  ADRIAN    IV.    AND    FREDERIC. 

a  mendicant,  was  now  upon  the  papal  throne,  dealing  out  his 
conditional  permissions  to  Henry  II.  to  conquer  Ireland  ;  de- 
manding of  Frederic,  the  emperor,  that  he  should  kiss  his 
great  toe,  hold  his  stirrup  when  he  mounted  his  horse,  and 
lead  him  by  the  bridle  when  he  had  mounted.  All  this  rous- 
ed the  indignation  of  the  emperor  ;  he  set  the  pope  at  defi- 
ance, humbled  the  revolted  Bohemians,  conquered  Poland, 
secured  the  fidelity  of  Germany  and  a  tranquil  throne,  until 
the  feuds  of  the  papacy  again  entangled  him  in  the  contested 
election  of  two  popes,  Victor  IV.  and  Alexander  III. 

This  controversy  embroiled  the  empire  with  the  states  of 
Italy,  who  were  supported  by  the  emperor  of  Constantinople, 
and  the  conflict  in  Italy  was  severe  and  bloody.  In  this  civ- 
il war  in  Italy,  the  city  of  Milan  was  given  up  to  the  flames, 
and  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins.  The  emperor  escaped  very 
narrowly,  in  his  desperate  contests  with  the  confederates  ; 
especially  in  a  naval  action  with  the  Venetians,  in  wrhich  his 
eldest  son  Henry  was  made  prisoner. 

Alexander  III.  triumphed  over  his  rival ;  the  emperor  was 
obliged  to  submit  to  the  demands  of  his  holiness,  kiss  his  feet, 
hold  his  stirrup,  and  lead  his  horse.  Frederic,  upon  this, 
received  the  submission  of  Italy,  with  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
and  returned  into  Germany,  where  he  found  more  work  cut 
out  for  him. 

The  war  in  Italy  had  raged  from  1159  to  1177,  and  the 
^emperor  was  now  called  to  humble  Henry,  duke  of  Saxony, 
whose  pride  was  swelled  by  his  marriage  with  a  daughter  of 
the  king  of  England.  Frederic  soon  put  him  to  the  ban  of 
the  empire,  and  sent  him  off  to  England,  where  he  raised  up 
the  stock  that  founded  the  house  of  Brunswick,  from  which 
sprang  the  present  reigning  family  on  the  throne  of  England. 

At  this  time,  1181,  Saladin  the  great,  caliph  of  Egypt, 
overran  Syria,  took  vengeance  on  the  Christians,  destroyed 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  Antioch,  took  these  cities, 
and  chased  the  Christians  from  all  their  conquests  in  Asia. 
All  Christendom  was  full  of  consternation.  Clement  the  III. 
ordered  a  third  crusade  to  be  preached  throughout  Christen- 
dom ;  Frederic  Barbarossa  put  himself  at  their  head,  with 
his  son,  the  duke  of  Suabia,  with  an  army  of  150,000  men  ; 
laid  Hungary  under  contribution  in  his  route  ;  humbled  the" 
Greek  emperor  ;  marched  triumphant  on  to  the  plains  of 
Asia  ;  made  the  cities  of  the  east,  and  their  troops,  tremble 
at  his  sword  j  bathed  in  tiie  cold  river  Cydnus,  after  the 


/////"  .l/i'.\-fnt</fr  //f.r 
A//-/.V.N  ///'.v  c//y///  A/<". 
l/ti  irnv  /hi-  t/tt/t  /iitiiu'/i<itt'f>ii  ir/iir/i  tri//  u/fiin <it</\-  /r*t//t  in 

///v /»////.   '  /'//y/'  .r     /'<if/>- /».>. 


]>EATII    OF    FREDERIC.  123- 

inanner  ot  the  hero  of  Maceclon,  took  a  diseas^  and  died. 
Tims  fell  the  hero  of  the  third  crusade,  in  the  midst  of  this 
mad  career  of  glory,  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  his  age,  and 
«v:w  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  VI. 

Philip  the  I.  was  now  in  quiet  possession  of  the  crown 
of  France,  and  Richard  I.  son  of  Henry  II.  upon  the  death  of 
his  father,  was  in  possession  of  the  crown  of  England.  These 
two  princes  were  engaged,  heart  and  hand,  in  this  crusade, 
and  upon  a  new  plan.  They  assembled  an  army  of  one  hun- 
dred thousand  men  on  the  plains  of  Vezelay,  in  France  ; 
marched  to  the  ports  of  Genoa,  and  Marseilles,  where  they 
each  embarked  his  army  for  the  holy  land  ;  were  forced  by 
stress  of  weather  to  winter  at  Messina  ;  were  entangled  in  an 
intrigue  with  the  king  of  Naples  ;  quarrelled  with  the  Mcs- 
sinians  ;  and  quarrelled  with  each  other  :  Richard  seized  on 
the  city  of  Messina,  and  planted  his  standard  on  the  walls  ; 
they  settled  their  quarrels,  and  again  embarked  upoa  their 
adventure,  1 191. 

Richard  was  wrecked  upon  the  isle  of  Cyprus  ;  some  of  his 
vessels  plundered,  and  their  crews  imprisoned  :  Richard 
took  vengeance  on  the  tyrant,  repaired  his  fleet,  and  again  s*t 
sail  for  Palestine, 


CHAP.  XL 

Third  crusade  continued — Richard,  king  of  England,  a  cap- 
tive in  Germany John,  successor  to  Richard Mctgna 

Charta. 

THE  Christians  had  pushed  the  siege  of- Ptolemaic,  a  strong 
seaport  town  in  Palestine,  in  possession  of  the  Saracens. 
This  siege  had  proved  fatal  to  Frederic  II.  son  and  successor 
of  Frederic  I.  emperor  of  Germany,  and  ruinous  to  his  ar- 
my. Here  Richard  landed  his  army,  joined  Philip  again,  and 
took  part  in  the  siege.  Here  Richard  displayed  his  true 
English  valor ;  Ptolemais  was  taken  ;  after  a  desperate  de- 
fence, and  the  governor  stipulated,  "  that  the  great  Saladin 
should  pay  a  round  sum  of  money  for  the  ransom  of  the  gar- 
rison ;  dismiss  two  thousand  five  hundred  Christian  prisoners 
of  distinction,  and  restore  the  true  wood  of  the  cross." 

Thus  fell  Ptolemais,  the  citadel  of  Palestine,  after  a  two 
years  siege,  «*  which  cost  the  Christians  three  hundred  thou- 


124 


FALL    OF    PTOLEMAIS. 


sand  men,  elusive  of  persons  of  a  superior  rank  ;  six  arch- 
bishops, twelve  bishops,  forty  earls,  and  five  hundred  bar- 
ons." 

The  martial  superiority  of  Richard  disgusted  Philip  ;  he 

renewed  his  oath  of  peace  and  amity,  left  Richard  ten  thou. 

sand  men  under  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,    and  returned  with 

ay  to  France,  touched  at  Italy  on  his  way,  and  applied 

raent  III.  to  absolve  him  from  his  oath,  who  refused  : 

and  he  attempted  to  manage  by  intrigues,  when  he  returned 

to  France,  what  his  oath  restrained  him  from  doing  by  open 

hostility. 

Richard  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  confederates,  and 
marched  to  the  siege  of  Ascalon  ;  Saladin  with  an  army  of 
three  hundred  thousand  men,  disputed  his  passage  ;  an  ac- 
tion ensued,  as  memorable  as  the  siege  of  Ptolemaic;  the 
conflict  was  desperate,  and  the  carnage  terrible  ;  forty  thou- 
sand Saracens  strewed  the  iield  of  death  ;  the  Christians  were 
triumphant ;  Ascalon  fell  into  their  hands,  and  opened  a  way 
to  Jerusalem. 

In  full  view  of  the  great  object  of  their  enterprise,  and  la- 
boars,  a  magical  languor  seized  all  the  princes,  they  resolved 
to  abandon  the  enterprise  ;  settled  a  peace  with  Saladin, 
and  returned  to  Europe.  This  peace,  stipulated,  "  that  the 
christiaus  should  keep  possession  of  the  strong  towns  thej' 
iind  conquered  in  Palestine  ;  have  a  free  and  safe  access  to 
Jerusalem,  for  their  pilgrimages,  for  the  space  of  three  years, 
.  three  months,  three  weeks,  and  three  days."  Saladin  died 
at  Damascus  soon  after. 

Richard,  on  his  return  home,  in  the  garb  of  a  pilgrim,  was 
seized,  and  imprisoned  by  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  who  was 
his  companion  in  arms,  at  the  siege  of  Ptolemais,  and  who 
sold  him  to  the  emperor  Henry  VI.  who  loaded  him  with 
irons,  and  immured  him  in  a  dungeon  in  the  heart  of  Germany. 
At  the  same  time,  Philip,  king  of  France,  exerted  all  his  pow 
ers  of  intrigue,  to  purchase  Richard,  seize  on  Normandy,  and 
even  by  an  intermarriage  with  a  princess  of  Denmark,  to  reco- 
ver to  himself  the  Danish  claims  on  the  throne  of  England. 

Amidst  these  scenes  of  perfidy,  the  clamors  of  the  pope, 
and  the  diet  of  Germany,  compelled  the  emperor  to  withhold 
the  sale  of  Richard  from  the  king  of  France,  and  restore  him 
to  his  own  subjects  ;  which  he  did,  for  the  ransom  of  fifty 
thousand  marks  :  (three  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling.) 
These  are  the  princes  who  were  the  champions  of  the  cross, 


KO?G    RICHARD.  125 

and  these  scenes  serve  to  shew  the  perfidy,  corruption,  and 
depravity  of  that  enthusiastic  age  of  barbarism. 

The  joy  of  the  English  nation,  upon  the  arrival  of  Richard, 
was  inexpressible  :  but  the  chagrin  and  alarm  of  Philip,  were 
best  expressed  in  this  caution  to  John,  brother  of  Richard, 
who  had  been  his  confederate  in  his  intrigues  ;  "  take  care 
of  yourself,  Richard  has  broke  loose."  Richard  had  no 
sooner  recovered  his  throne,  than  he  carried  war  into  Nor- 
mandy, to  revenge  the  perfidious  intrigues  of  Philip,  and  his 
brother  John.  John  submitted,  craved  pardon,  and  Richard 
granted  it,  with  this  expression  :  "  I  hope  I  shall  as  easily 
forget  his  offences,  as  he  will  my  pardon/' 

Richard  returned  to  England,  besieged  count  Vidomar  in 
his  castle,  for  the  sake  of  plunder,  was  wounded  by  an  arrow, 
arid  died.  Thus  fell  Richard  I.  king  of  England,  the  hero  of 
Palestine,  and  the  idol  of  England,  with  the  title  of  Cceurde 
Lion,  (or  the  lion  hearted  hero.) 

The  pardoned  John,  his  brother,  of  Normandy,  (stained 
with  the  blood  of  Arthur,  his  nephew,  who  was  his  competi- 
tor for  the  crown,  and  whom  he  slew  with  his  own  hands, 
whilst  upon  his  knees  begging  for  mercy,)  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  1199.  The  inhuman  murder  of  Arthur,  drew  upon- 
John  the  vengeance  of  his  English  subjects  :  they  even  made 
overtures  to  Phillip  II.  king  of  France,  to  revenge  the  barba- 
rity. Philip  embraced  the  favourable  moment,  seized  on  Nor-  - 
mandy,  Anjbu,  Maine,  Touraine,  and  part  of  Poictou,  and  ad- 
ded them  to  the  crown  of  France.  John  fled  to  England  ; 
here  he  became  the  sport  of  his  barons,  and  the  pope.- 

Clement  III.  attempted  to  exercise  his  sovereignty,  in  ap- 
pointing an  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  John  opposed  ;  Cle-  - 
ment  issued  his  spiritual  thunders,  with  a  sentence  of  depo- 
sition. To  enforce  these  thunders,  the  pope  proffered  to 
Philip  of  France,  the  eternal  joys  of  heaven,  together  with 
the  crown  of  England,  if  he  would  enforce  the  decrees 
Philip  readily  accepted,  levied  a  great  army,  together  with 
a  fleet  of  seventeen  hundred  vessels,  to  execute  the  de'cree. 
John  as  formidably  prepared  for  defence,  and  all  Europe  was 
alive  to  the  issue. 

In  the  midst  ofthis  vast  preparation,  Innocent  III.  receiv- 
er! the  submission  of  John;  sent  Pandolfo,  his  legate,  into 
England  to  receive  the  homage  of  the  king ;  and  at  the 
hands  of  John, -took  the  crown  of  England  to  himself.  John 
-.ip on  his  knees  before  the  throne  of  the  legate,  rescued 'his 

n  * 


126  HOMAGE    OF    KING    JOHN. 

crowa,  and  swore    fealty  to    Innocent  III.  ;    this   was   the 
style  : 

"  I  John,  by  the  grace  of  God,  king  of  England,  and  lor<l 
of  Ireland,  for  the  expiation  of  my  sin.s,  and  out  of  my  own 
free  will,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  my  barons,  do  give 
unto  the  church  of  Rome,  and  to  pope  Innocent  111.  and  his 
successors,  the  kingdoms  of  England  arid  Ireland,  together 
with  all  the  rights  belonging  to  them  ;  and  will  hold  them  of 
the  pope,  as  his  vassal.  I  will  be  faithful  to  God,  to  the 
church  of  Rome,  to  the  pope  my  lord,  and  to  his  successors 
lawfully  appointed,  and  I  bind  myself  to  pay  him  a  tribute  of 
t>ne  thousand  marks  of  silver  yearly,  viz.  seven  hundred  for 
the  kingdom  of  England,  and  three  hundred  for  Ireland." 
John  was  absolved,  and  after  five  days,  again  invested  with 
the  regalia  of  majesty,  1213. 

Philip,  stung  with  mortification  and  rage,  to  be  duped  by 
such  a  pious  fraud,  resolved  to  execute  his  purpose,  even 
against  the  commands  of  the  pope.  A  coalition  took  place 
between  Otho  IV.  emperor  of  Germany,  and  John  :  the  two 
monarchs  assembled  an  army  in  Flanders,  and  threatened 
the  ruin  of  Philip.  This  was  the  first  German  and  English 
^cracy  in  Flanders,  1214. 

Philip  triumphed  over  this  league,  in  a  desperate  battle 
near  Lisle,  and  gained  an  honorable  peace  ;  and  John  would 
have  been  content  with  destroying  the  French  naval  arma- 
ment, could  he  have  enjoyed  his  crown  in  peace  ;  but  he 
was  called  to  pass  through  new  scenes. 

England,  by  the  Norman  conquest,  had  become  a  feudal 
military  kingdom,  the  despotic  power  of  the  crown  was  plant- 
ed upon  the  ruins  of  Saxon  liberty,  and  the  people  were  vas- 
sals to  the  king,  and  the  barons.  The  voice  of  the  people 
had  long  been  smothered  under  this  oppression,  and  the  bar- 
ons had  often  complained  of  the  oppressions  of  the  crown  ; 
now  all  parties  were  agreed  to  commence  an  attack  upon  the 
crown,  and  bring  this  weak  king  to  terms. 

Privilege  set  up  her  claims  against  prerogative,  and  drew 
the  sword.  John  soon  yielded,  and  upon  a  conference  at 
the  ever  memorable  Runemede,  signed  and  sealed  the  ever 
memorable  Magna  Charta,  (or  great  charter,)  the  palladium 
of  English  liberty,  June  19,  1215. 

This  charter,  so  dear  to  every  Englishman,  was  also  the 
palladium  of  those  liberties,  which  our  fathers  brought  out 
into  this  wilderness,  and  which  have  rendered  fheir  sons  il- 


NEW    CRUSADE.  127 

ill  happy,  beyond  all  former  example.  Thus  we 
see,  how  the  sovereign  of  the  universe,  rides  on  the  whirl- 
wind, and  directs  the  storm,  and  causes  the  wrath  of  man  to 
praise  hirn. 

Henry  VI.  emperor  of  Germany,  instituted  three  crusades 
with  the  price  of  Richard's  ransom  ;  one  against  the  maritime 
towns  of  the  northwest  of  Germany,  Hamburg,  &,c.  ;  one 
against  Palestine,  and  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  other  against  Na- 
ples and  Sicily,  then  in  rebellion.  The  last,  he  headed  him- 
self, after  he  had  secured  a  successor,  by  causing  his  infant 
son,  then  in  the  cradle,  to  be  crowned  king  of  the  Romans, 
under  the  title  of  Frederic  II. 

Henry  waged  war  with  great  cruelty,  and  barbarity,  hum- 
bled the  rebels,  and  in  the  midst  of  his  career,  died  of  poison 
as  was  then  supposed,  by  the  order  of  his  queen.  The 
feuds  in  Germany  raged  with  great  violence  during  the  mi- 
nority of  Frederic,  under  the  regency  of  his  uncle  Philip, 
duke  of  Suabia,  and  the  intrigues  of  pope  Innocent  111. 
which  threatened  Germany,  and  Italy,  with  civil  war.  At 
this  eventful  crisis,  a  new  crusade  was  formed,  to  recover  the 
iioly  land,  and  the  feuds  of  Germany,  France,  and  Italy, 
were  all  swallowed  up  in  preparations  for  the  new  holy  war, 
1202, 


CHAP.  XII. 

against   Constantinople — Germany — France,    ami    a 
ncrx  crusade — England  and  France — Borough  elections   in 
land. 

BALDWIN,  Earl  of  Flanders,  bended  this  crusade.  The 
storm  first  burst  upon  Zena,  a  city  ofDalmatia,  which  was 
reduced  and  taken  in  defiance  of  the  pope.  It  next  broke 
upon  Constantinople  ;  this  fell  an  easy  conquest,  1204,  and 
notwithstanding  it  was  the  seat  of  that  Christian  church,  which 
was  the  glory  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  days  of  Constan- 
tine,  and  under  the  protection  of  the  religion  of  the  cross,  to 
that  day  ;  it  was  given  up  to  pillage,  rapine,  and  rage  ;  their 
churches  were  plundered,  their  altars  robbed,  and  made  the 
theatres  of  every  excess  ;  and  Baldwin,  after  having  order- 
ed the  emperor  to  be  thrown  from  the  top  of  a  lofty  column, 
uself  to  be  proclaimed  emperor. 


120. 


NEW    CRUSADE. 


The  confederates  divided  the  spoil,  together  with  the 
empire,  and  provinces  ;  delivered  up  the  dominion  of  the 
church  to  the  pope,  and  returned,  abandoning  the  holy  war  to 
such  only,  as  had  got  no  part  of  the  hooty  of  the  Greek  em- 
pire. The  pope  closed  the  scene  with  this  holy  consolation  : 
"'  God,  willing  to  console  his  church  by  the  reunion  of  the 
schismatics,  has  made  the  empire  pass  from  the  proud,  su- 
perstitious, disobedient  Greeks,  to  the  humble,  pious,  catho- 
lic, and  submissive  Latins." 

As  soon  as  these  champions  of  the  cross  had  retired,  the 
Greeks  took  up  arms  in  various  quarters  ;  called  in  the  aid  oi 
their  neighbors  ;  expelled  the  emperor  Baldwin  ;  pursued^ 
and  took  him  prisoner  near  Adrianople  ;  cut  off  his  head, 
legs,  and  arms  ;  gave  his  carcase  to  the  wild  beasts  ;  and  re- 
covered their  ruined  city,  in  1206. 

The  feuds  of  France  and  Germany  raged  under  Philip  and 
Otho,  during  these  movements  in  the  east  :  the  pope  inter- 
fered, and  crowned  the  young  Frederic  II.  emperor,  in  order 
to  check  Otho.  This  kindled  the  torch  with  more  violence, 
until  Otho  quit  the  field,  and  fled  into  retirement,  where  h( 
sunk  into  contempt  ;  the  peace  of  Germany  was  restored  b] 
the  coronation  of  Frederic,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1215.  This 
feud  was  in  its  turn  succeeded  by  a  new  crusade  under  pope 
Honorius  III.  All  Christendom  v, as  now  rallied  to  the  con- 
test ;  assembled  their  armies  in  Spain  and  Italy  ;  embarked 
for  Syria,  and  landed  at  Ptolemais  ;  undertook  several  adven- 
tures, and  failed  ;  then  laid  siege  to  Damietta,  and  took  it. 
The  duke  of  Austria  withdrew  his  forces,  and  returned  home 
whilst  the  emperor  sent  out  fresh  recruits  under  cardinal 
Albano. 

This  Benedictine  monk  claimed  the  chief  command  as  the 
immediate  representative  of  his  holiness,  which  after  much' 
debate  arid  intrigue,  was  by  the  express  orders  of  the  pope, 
yielded  to  him. 

The  cardinal  general  posted  his  army  upon  the  Nile,  in 
Egypt,  where  he  was  soon  endangered  by  the  overflowing  of 
the  river,  and  compelled  t^Sign  a  convention  with  the  soldan 
of  Egypt ;  by  which  he  bound  himself  and  followers,  to  with- 
draw from  the  war  for  eight  years,  and  deliver  up  Damiettn, 
which  had  been  taken  by  the  division  from  Spain  t  Egypt 
•was  relieved  in  1221. 

Violent  disputes  continued  to  rage  in  Germany  and  Italy. 
Gregory  IX.  succeeded  to  the  chair  upon  the  death  of  Hono- 


NEW    CRUSADE.  29 

mis.  He  came  out  with  his  thunders  against  the  emperor 
Frederic  II.  to  compel  him  to  lead  another  crusade.  Frede- 
ric finally  yielded,  and  embarked  for  Syria,  yet  under  the 
censures  of  the  pope,  which  he  treated  with  contempt, 
This  expedition  proved  successful,  and  he  obtained  by  treaty 
with  Meledin,  Soldan  of  Egypt,  Jerusalem,  Joppa,  Bethle- 
hem, Nazareth,  Tyre  and  Sidon,  with  all  their  neighboring 
countries,  upon  the  conditions  of  a  truce  often  years,  and 
returned  to  Italy, 

Here  the  old  quarrel  was  renewed  with  violence  with  the 
pope,  whose  mortification  was  extreme,  that  the  emperor 
should  exceed  all  the  champions  of  the  cross  in  his  conquests, 
when  under  the  censures  of  the  church.  Gregory  sowed 
the  seeds  of  rebellion  in  Italy  and  Germany,  and  lit  the  torch 
by  a  new  fulmination  in  the  following  style  : 

"  A  beast  of  blasphemy  replete  with  names,  is  risen  from 
the  sea,  with  the  feel  of  a  bear,  the  face  of  a  lion,  and  mem- 
bers of  other  beasts  ;  which  like  the  proud,  hath  opened  his 
mouth  against  the  holy  name,  not  even  fearing,  to  throw  his 
arrows  against  the  tabernacle  of  God,  and  the  saints  that 
dwell  in  heaven."  &.c.  to  a  great  extent. 

Frederic  met  this  bull  by  a  reply,  in  which  he  styled  his 
holiness,  '>  The  great  dragon,  the  antichrist,"  of  whom  it  is 
written,  '-and  another  red  horse  arose  from  the  sea,  and  he 
that  sat  upon  him  took  pence  from  the  earth,"  &c.  This 
quarrel  rekindled  the  two  factions  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghib- 
elines  ;  whose  citiee  were  given  up  to  indiscriminate  butch- 
ery. Gregory  died  ;  Celestine  IV.  succeeded  but  eight 
days  :  then  Innocent  IV.  succeeded  to  the  chair,  who  fled 
into  France,  rekindled  the  war  by  a  new  bull  of  deposition, 
with  orders  to  choose  a  new  emperor. 

The  bishops  of  Germany  (without  the  nobles)  assembled, 
and  chose  Henry,  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and  the  civil  war 
raged  afresh.  Henry  died  :  the  same  council  chose  William, 
count  of  Holland  ;  the  war  raged  with  more  violence.  Fred- 
eric, pressed  upon  all  sides,  retired  to  Naples  to  recruit  his 
army,  where  he  died  in  the  fifty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  A.  D. 
1250. 

The  war  still  raged  ;  the  clergy  took  up  arms  against  the 
laity  ;  all  laws,  human  and  divine,  were  set  at  defiance,  and 
Germany  was  drenched  in  blood,  until  the  death  of  William, 
in  1256.  This  opened  the  way,  through  all  the  factions  of  a 
long  and  distressing  interregnum,  for  the  election  of  Rodolph, 
count  of  Hapsburg,  in  1273. 


HENRY  III. 

During  this  interregnum,  the  maritime  cities  of  the  Trest,. 
in  the  whole,  eighty-four  towns,  formed  the  famous  Hanseat- 
ic  league  for  the  protection  of  commerce.  At  the  head  of 
these  stood  Cologne,  Brunswic,  Lubec,  Dantzic,  Thorn,  &c. 
Italy  and  Sicily  also  changed  their  governments.  AU  the 
good  that  resulted  from  this  long  and  distressing  struggle, 
must  be  looked  for  in  the  field  of  commerce. 

The  feuds  in  England  kept  pace  with  the  feuds  in  Germa- 
ny. As  soon  as  the  storm  was  laid  by  magna  charta,  John 
determined  to  recover  his  liberties  and  prerogatives.  He  se- 
cretly employed  in  his  service,  foreign  mercenary  troops, 
and  sent  to  the  pope,  praying  for  a  bull  of  interdiction  against 
his  refractory  barons,  and  obtained  his  request.  Thus  arm- 
ed with  the  spiritual  tnunders  of  the  church,  John  drew  his 
sword,  and  began  the  attack  :  carrying  fire  and  sword  into 
the  castles  of  the  barons,  and  throughout  their  villages  :  all 
England  was  one  scene  of  desolation  and  distress. 

The  barons  in  despair,  applied  to  Philip,  king  of  France 
for  succour  ;  he  readily  obeyed  the  summons,  assembled  an 
army,  Lewis  his  eldest  son  embarked,  and  landed  in  England. 
John  was  deserted  by  his  foreign  mercenaries,  sunk  under 
the  pressure  of  the  war,  arid  died,  aged  49. 

John  was  a  weak,  corrupt,  malicious,  unfeeling,  unprinci- 
pled king;  whose  whole  life  was  full  of  evil,  without  any 
good,  but  that  great  charter,  which  was  extorted  from  him, 
and  Avhich  will  ever  perpetuate  his  memory.  John  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Henry  III.  then  nine  years  old.  The  earl 
of  Pembroke,  then  mareschal  of  England,  and  at  the  head  of 
her  armies,  was  chosen  protector  and  guardian  of  Henry. 

Lewis  penetrated  to  London  ;  but  at  the  death  of  John, 
he  found  the  protector  not  only  at  the  head  of  the  army  and 
government,  but  of  the  nation.  He  united  all  parties,  and 
Lewis  settled  a  truce,  procured  indemnity  for  his  adherents, 
with  a  free  passage  to  France,  and  set  sail  ;  leaving  England 
to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  all  her  struggles,  under  a  general  calm, 
1217. 

Henry,  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  made  war  upon 
France,  and  attempted  to  recover  the  ancient  provinces 
which  Philip  had  seized  ;  but  failed,  lost  the  remainder  of 
Poictou,  and  returned  in  disgrace,  1243.  During  this  reign 
the  pope  fleeced  England,  and  drew  by  his  arts  a  greater  rev- 
enue than  the  crown.  In  addition  to  this,  he  entangled  Henry 


HENRY  in.  131 

in  the  controversy  for  the  crown  of  Sicily,  upon  the  death  of 
Frederic  II.  Finding  his  resources  inadequate  to  the  enter-, 
prise,  he  offered  it  to  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  the  richest 
subject  in  Europe  :  Richard  refused.  This  project  exhaust- 
ed England,  and  failed  ;  the  pope  took  the  disposal  of  the 
crown  to  himself,  1255. 

The  feuds  of  Germany  at  this  time,  led  them  to  invite  to 
the  throne,  the  same  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  brother  of 
Henry  III.  Allured  with  the  title  of  emperor,  he  accepted, 
and  spent  all  his  fortune  in  a  vain  pursuit  to  establish  his 
crown,  and  returned  to  England  in  poverty  and  disappoint- 
ment, in  1257. 

Again  the  claims  of  privilege,  and  prerogative,  were  re- 
newed in  England,  and  Henry  laid  the  storm  by  a  renewal  of 
the  great  charter.  Henry  soon  rekindled  the  storm  ;  the 
earl  of  Leicester  again  took  the  lead  of  the  disaffected  barons  ; 
both  parties  took  the  field  ;  a  decisive  battle  was  fought  in 
Sussex  ;  Henry,  prince  Edward,  and  all  the  royal  family  were 
taken,  and  Leicester  took  the  helm  of  government ;  assem- 
bled a  new  parliament,  composed  of  two  knights  from  each 
shire,  and  two  deputies  from  each  borough* 


CHAP.   XIII. 

England — France,  and  a  nerv  crusade  under  Lewis  Vlll — Spain 
from  1037io  1303 — -some  symptoms  of  order. 

THE  last  chapter  has  disclosed  to  us,  how  privilege  tri- 
umphed over  prerogative,  and  introduced  the  borough  elec- 
tions into  parliament.  This  branch  of  the  government, 
(which  has  been  a  bone  of  contention  in  after  days,)  became 
the  instrument  of  establishing  the  commonwealth,  under 
Cromwell,  and  thereby  swallowing  up  prerogative.  These 
controversies  make  no  part  of  this  narrative  ;  facts,  not  opin- 
ions, are  the  object  of  this  work. 

Leicester*  began  his  persecutions  in  his  turn  ;  young  Ed- 
ward made  his  escape,  the  royalists  assembled,  a  fatal  battle 
was  fought  near  Evesharn,  Leicester  was  slain,  his  army  rout- 
ed, Henry  restored  to  his  throne,  and  the  nation  became 
tranquil  without  further  effusion  of  blood. 


132 


ST.     t\ 


Prince  Edward  made  an  expedition  to  ihe  holy  l;md  ii 
.1270,  returned  the  next  year,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne 
upon  the  death  of  his  father,  Henry  III.  who  died  aged  64. 
after  a  long  reign  of  fifty-six  years. 

During  this  reign,  Philip  II.  of  France,  had  enriched  his 
crown  with  all  the  English  possessions  on  the  continent,  an< 
left  his  throne  to  Lewis  VIII.  :  he  did  nothing  worthy  oi 
notice,  died,  and  left  his  throne  to  Lewis  IX.  or  St.  Lewis, 
1226,  then  twelve  years  old  ;  the  regency  was  conducted  b;j 
the  queen  mother  during  the  minority. 

When  Lewis  came  to  the  throne,  in  1235,  he  united  in 
himself  three  characters,  hitherto  considered  as  incompatible 
with  each  other  ;  the  monk,  the  hero,  and  philosopher  ;  anc 
took  the  incontrovertible  principles  of  justice  for  the  basis 
of  his  reign.  Lewis  agreeable  to  a  vow  which  he  made  when 
sick,  passed  four  years  in  arranging  the  affairs  of  his  king- 
dom, and  collecting  his  forces,  to  make  an  expedition  to  the 
holy  land, 

In  1248^  he  embarked  upon  his  expedition,  accompanied 
by  his  queen,  his  three  brothers,  and  all  the  knights  of 
France,  touched  at  Cyprus,  and  landed  in  Egypt — eighteen 
hundred  ships  carried  the  army  and  vast  military  prepara- 
tions of  the  monarch  of  France  ;  Lewis  found  himself  at  the 
head  of  sixty  thousand  men. 

The  city  of  Damietta  was  abandoned  by  the  Saracens  ;  and 
fell  an  easy  conquest  to  the  arms  of  Lewis,  in  1249.  This 
was  his  only  success  in  Egypt,  and  this  he  was  soon  obliged  to 
abandon  by  a  convention  to  recover  his  own  liberty,  which 
he  had  lost  by  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  soldan  of  Egypt, 
in  a  fatal  battle  at  Massoura  :  here  his  brother  Robert  was 
slain  by  his  side,  and  his  two  other  brothers,  with  all  his  no- 
bility, made  prisoners  with  himself.  This  treaty  with  athou-. 
sand  pieces  of  gold,  restored  all  the  captives,  and  enabled 
him  to  draw  off  the  shattered  remains  of  his  army  into  Pales- 
tine, where  he  remained  four  years. 

During  this  time,  the  queen  mother,  by  the  assistance  of  a 
monk,  attempted  to  raise  100,000  paupers  in  Franco,  for  the 
relief  of  her  son.  This  proved  the  worst  evil  of  the  two 
these  shepherds  filled  all  France  with  their  excesses  of  rob- 
bery and  pillage,  and  in  a  civil  war,  they  were  subdued  by 
force  of  arms.  Lewis  returned  to  France  1258,  and  ruled 
with  wisdom,  moderation,  and  justice. 

In  I-?';*,  he  was  created  gole   umpire,  ly  the  contending 


PRANCE    UNDER    LEWIS    VIII.  133 

parties  in  England,  to  settle  their  quarrels,  and  decided  with 
that  wisdom,  which  has  ever  rendered  his  justice  illustrious. 
It  has  been  imputed  as  a  fault  to  Lewis,  that  he  suffered  the 
pope  to  shed  the  blood  of  the  duke  of  Austria  upon  the  scaf- 
fold, in  his  controversy  for  the  crown  of  Sicily;  and  by  the 
instrumentality  of  the  count  of  Anjou,  to  suffer  the  pope  to 
hold  the  crown. 

Lewis  made  one  more  crusade  against  the  infidels,  not  of 
Asia,  but  of  Africa.  He  landed  a  strong  army  near  the  bay 
of  Tunis,  and  attempted  sword  in  hand  to  compel  the  king  of 
Tunis  to  become  a  Christian.  The  infidel  refused  :  Lewis 
soon  saw  his  army  wasted  with  sickness  ;  one  son  die,  and 
another  ready  to  die  ;  and  in  the  midst  of  this  awful  scene, 
the  same  plague  took  him  off,  in  the  fifty-sixth  year  of  his 
age.  Philip,  his  son,  recovered,  held  the  Moors  at  bay,  and 
led  back  the  remains  of  the  army  into  France,  in  1271. 

Lewis  made  a  general  reform  of  abuses  in  France,  correct- 
ed the  evils  occasioned  by  his  long  absence  on  his  several 
crusades  ;  establishedjudicial  tribunals,  which  checked  the 
power  of  the  nobility  ;  suppressed  private  feudal  wars  ; 
abolished  the  ordeal  of  single  combat,  relieved  France  from 
the  exactions  of  the  popes  ;  and  by  his  wisdom,  virtue  and 
justice,  secured  during  his  reign,  the  peace  of  France. 

We  have  now  brought  forward  England,  France,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  more  than  two  centuries  in  advance  of  Spain, 
in  order  to  preserve  the  great  chain  of  events  unbroken, 
through  the  rage  of  the  crusades  :  we  will  now  go  back,  and 
bring  forward  Spain  from  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  great, 
son  of  Sancho,  who  united  the  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Leon. 
1037. 

Here  commences  the  reign  of  knight  errantry.  Spain 
was  at  this  time  divided  into  about  twenty  kingdoms,  besides 
many  independent  lordships,  all  filled  with  ignorance,  super- 
stition, violence,  and  civil  wars.  The  lesser  sovereigns 
were  often  engaged  as  mercenaries  in  the  civil  wars  of  the 
kings.  They  ranged  the  country  on  horseback,  armed  cap- 
a-pie  with  coats  of  mail,  followed  by  their  attendants,  or 
squires,  as  adventurers  of  the  sword,  and  entered  into  the 
service  of  such  kings  as  required  their  arms.  The  sword  was 
their  instrument  of  support,  and  war  their  trade  ;  hence  the 
reason  why  Spain  was  filled  with  all  that .  enthusiasm  of  sin- 
gle combat,  down  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 

A  few  instances  of  this  romantic  chivalry,  may  be  worthy 
12 


134 


CHIVALRY    AND    CIVIL    WARS. 


of  notvce.  The  quarrel  between  Sancho,  and  his  sister  Au 
rica,  occasioned  his  assassination,  whilst  he  besieged  her  in 
the  city  ofZamora.  Three  knights  entered  the  list  against  Don 
Diego  de  Lara,  the  champion  of  Sancho,  and  accuser  of  Au- 
rica.  It  must  not  be  understood,  that  these  three  knights  at- 
tacked Don  Diego  at  once  ;  this  was  not  agreeable  to  the  hon- 
orable laws  of  chivalry  :  the  contest  was  single  combat. 

Two  champions,  armed  cap-a-pie  in  coats  of  mail,  entered 
the  lists,  mounted  on  horses  trained  to  the  fight.  At  such 
distance  as  was  agreed,  each  took  his  stand,  armed  with  a 
long  spear  ;  this  he  held  with  his  right  hand,  presented  to  his 
antagonist,  with  the  other  end  fixed  firm  in  its  rest :  upon  the 
signal  given,  they  advanced  full  speed  to  the  charge,  and  as 
they  passed,  each  met  his  champion  with  the  point  of  his 
spear  ;  this  either  penetrated  the  armour  and  wounded,  or 
killed  the  knight,  and  threw  him  from  his  horse  ;  or  unhors- 
ed him  by  the  violence  of  the  shock  without  a  wound  ;  or 
glanced,  by  a  side  stroke,  and  let  him  pass.  This  was  the 
pastime  of  these  champions  of  chivalry. 

Don  Diego  killed  two  of  the  champions  of  Aurica,  and  the 
third  was  carried  out  of  the  lists  by  the  violence  of  his  horse, 
and  the  contest  remained  doubtful.  The  city  of  Toledo  was 
then  in  the  hands  of  the  Moors,  and  Alphonso  VI.  king  of 
Castile,  undertook  to  subdue  it  by  siege,  1084.  In  this  war, 
a  renowned  knight,  known  by  the  name  of  Don  Roderigo,  or 
the  Cid,  filled  Europe  with  his  fame,  and  brought  many 
knights  and  princes  from  France  and  Italy  to  the  siege  of 
Toledo.  The  city  was  carried  after  a  siege  of  one  year, 
and  all  Europe  resounded  with  the  exploits  of  these  cham- 
pions of  chivalry. 

The  war  was  a  religious  war,  Almanzor,  king  of  Toledo, 
and  Alphonso  were  friends,  and  under  mutual  obligations  to 
each  other  ;  but  their  religions  were  different,  and  they  con- 
tinued so  by  treaty,  upon  the  surrendery  of  Toledo,  and  both 
parties  continued  to  enjoy  the  same  civil  and  religious  priv- 
ileges as  before. 

Alphonso  violated  the  treaty,  by  calling  an  assembly  of 
bishops,  and  placing  a  catholic  at  the  head  ofthe  bishopric  of 
Toledo,  which  act  pope  Urban  II.  confirmed.  This  kindled 
the  war  afresh  ;  two  knights  entered  the  lists,  and  drew  the 
sword  to  decide  the  question  by  single  combat  ;  (the  sword 
as  well  as  the  spear,  became  the  instrument  of  single  combat 
in  knight  errantry.)  The  catholic  champion  was  foiled  ;  a 


SPAIN  CONTINUED.  135 

new  trial  was  obtained  by  the  archbishop,  in  defiance  of  all 
(he  laws  of  chivalry,  and  they  made  their  appeal  to  the  or- 
deal of  tire.  Both  liturgies  were  thrown  into  the  flames  ; 
both  were  consumed,  and  both  parties  exercised  their  religion. 

This  spirit  of  these  parties  raged  with  such  violence  in 
Spain,  as  to  induce  Alphonso  to  invite  the  Miramolin  of  Af- 
rica, (or  king  of  the  Moors,)  to  assist  in  subduing  the  Moors 
in  Spain.  This  invitation  he  accepted,  took  advantage  of 
their  divisions,  seized  on  the  city  of  Seville,  and  confirmed 
the  dominions  of  the  Moors,  1097.  These  wars  drenched 
Spain  in  blood,  under  all  the  extremes  of  chivalry. 

In  1147,  Alphonso  Henriquez,  count  of  Portugal,  expelled 
the  Moors  from  Lisbon,  and  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
king  of  Portugal. 

In  the  year  1212,  the  Miramolin  of  Africa  took  advantage 
of  these  incessant  wars  in  Spain,  passed  over  with  a  numer- 
ous army,  and  threatened  the  conquest  of  the  country.  This, 
again,  was  a  religious  quarrel  :  knights  and  princes,  from  all 
parts  of  Europe,  assembled  to  the  war.  Alphonso  led  the 
Christian  army,  preceded  by  the  archbishop  of  Toledo,  bear- 
ing the  cross.  The  Miramolin  led  the  Moorish  army,  bear- 
ing the  Koran  in  one  hand,  and  the  sabre  in  the  other. 

The  conflicts  of  Palestine,  and  the  prowess  of  Jerusalem, 
were  renewed  in  the  defiles  of  the  black  mountains  of  Spain  : 
the  champions  waded  in  blood  +  the  standard  of  the  cross 
prevailed  ;  and  the  ever  memorable  16th  of  July  is  still  cel- 
ebrated in  Toledo.  The  Moors  were  vanquished  ;  Irat  the 
war  still  raged,  and  Spain  knew  not  the  enjoyment  of  one  mo- 
ment's repose. 

In  1236  appeared  Ferdinand  III.  or  St.  Ferdinand,  in  the 
midst  of  these  bloody  conflicts,  which  still  raged  with  vio- 
lence. He  took  the  city  of  Cordova,  and  drove  out  the 
Moors;  also  the  province  of  Murcia,  and  the  city  of  Seville  ; 
he  died  1252  ;  his  name  will  ever  be  memorable  in  Spain. 

Alphonso  the  wise,  or  astronomer,  son  of  Ferdinand,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne.  He  greatly  improved  the  learning  and 
laws  of  Spain,  and  the  improvements  in  astronomy  do  honor 
to  his  reign.  He  died  in  a  league  with  the  Moors,  defending 
his  crown  against  his  rebellious  son  Sancho,  who  usurped  the 
throne  upon  the  death  of  his  father  in  1303.  His  reign  was 
short  but  tranquil  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdi- 
nand IV.  ;  his  reign  was  turbulent,  and  his  death  worthy  of 
noticed 


136  EFFORTS  FOR  GENERAL  PEACE> 

Two  noblemen  were  thrown  by  his  tyrannic  rage  from  the 
top  of  a  high  rock,  and  dashed  to  pieces.  At  the  moment  of 
their  fall  they  summoned  the  king  to  meet  them  in  the  pres- 
ence of  God,  in  one  month  ;  Ferdinand  obeyed  the  summons 
at  the  time,  and  died. 

This  chivalry  which  raged  in  Spain,  was  part  of  the  same 
spirit  that  armed  Europe  against  Asia,  and  under  the  banner 
of  the  cross,  drenched  the  plains  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and 
Palestine  in  blood  these  two  hundred  years. 

The  effects  of  these  crusades  at  first  increased  and  confirm- 
ed the  power  of  the  popes  ;  but  at  the  same  time  increased 
the  power  of  the  kings,  which  in  process  of  time  rose  superi- 
or to  the  power  of  the  popes.  They  greatly  promoted  com- 
merce, and  enriched  the  cities  of  Venice,  Pisa,  and  Genoa, 
which  were  the  more  immediate  carriers  for  Europe  in  the 
later  expeditions.  They  taught  the  Europeans  the  arts  and 
sciences,  particularly  the  use  of  the  shuttle  and  the  loom  ;  arid 
the  manufacture  of  silk  which  soon  began  to  flourish  in  Italy. 
Architecture  made  a  part  of  these  improvements,  cities  be- 
gan to  rise  and  flourish  in  Italy,  and  throughout  Europe  ;  and 
Ihe  magnificent  castles  which  filled  Europe,  with  the  palaces, 
as  well  as  the  strong  holds  of  the  barons  and  nobles,  were  the 
effects  of  the  crusades. 

The  collisions  which  sprang  up  between  the  barons  and 
the  cities,  and  between  the  rival  cities  themselves,  called  for 
the  interposition  of  the  king  ;  his  interposition,  which  gene- 
rally required  force,  called  for  the  aid  of  the  people  ;  they 
made  advantage  of  the  strife,  and  obtained  some  degree  of 
that  liberty  of  which  they  were  entirely  deprived  before; 
when  the  wealth  of  the  cities  could  support  the  authority  of 
the  crown  by  money,  the  king  set  the  barons  at  defiance,  be- 
came the  man  of  the  people,  and  they  supported  him.  This 
secured  what  liberty  the  ignorance  of  the  age  was  able  to 
bear  ;  but  feuds,  quarrels  and  wars  still  raged. 

To  give  some  check,  or  even  respite  from  these  bloody  ca- 
lamities, recourse  was  had  to  the  church.  Religious  socie- 
ties were  formed,  by  messages,  ascribed  to  the  special  inter- 
position of  Heaven,  to  deter  men  from  hostility. 

One  styled  "  the  truce  of  God"  set  apart  those  days  of  the 
week  in  which  Christ  suffered,  lay  entombed,  and  rose  again, 
as  days  of  general  peace  and  reconciliation,  to  be  observed 
as  a  festival  of  the  church  :  this  restrained  the  people,  but 
not  the  barons 


ENGLAND,  WALES,  AND  SCOTLAND.         13? 

Another  association  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  coerc- 
ing by  arms  the  refractory  and  the  quarrelsome,  styled  "  The 
brotherhood  of  God."  These  became  general,  supported 
the  power  and  authority  of  the  kings,  and  produced  great  and 
good  effects.  In  the  rnidst  of  these  improvements,  the  code 
of  Justinian's  laws  was  discovered  in  Italy,  and  although  little 
understood,  yet  claimed  attention  as  a  monument  of  Roman 
wisdom  and  greatness  ;  was  studied,  and  became  useful. 

The  science  of  law,  as  a  profession  grew  out  of  this,  and 
opened  the  way  for  other  professions  ;  schools  began  to  be 
established,  colleges  to  be  founded,  and  men  began  to  feel 
something  of  what  they  now  enjoy. 


CHAP.     XIV. 

* 

England  under  Edward  I. — affairs  of  Scotland — Edward  II, 

EDWARD  I.  of  England  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  his  father 
John  in  1274,  and  during  the  reign  of  Alphonso  the  wise,  in 
Spain.  Edward  took  magna  charta  for  the  standard  of  his 
reign,  and  upon  this  foundation,  established  a  system  of 
wise  and  vigorous  measures,  which  caanged  the  aspect  of 
affairs,  and  gave  order  and  tranquillity  to  England. 

Edward  marched  into  Wales  at  the  request  of  David  and 
Roderic,  to  settle  the  controversy  for  the  crown,  then  in  the 
hands  of  their  brother  Le welly  n  ;  besieged  Lewellyn  in  his 
stronghold,  among  the  hills  of  Snowdon  ;  compelled  him  to 
submit  and  resign  his  crowH.  As  soon  as  Edward  had  with- 
drawn his  army,  Lewellyn  flew  to  arms,  and  roused  up  his 
countrymen  to  revenge  the  insults  of  the  English.  - 

Edward  again  entered  Wales,  and  by  his  general^.Robert 
Mortimer,  defeated  Lewellyn,  who  fell  in  the  conflict,  and 
added  Wales  to  the  crown  of  England.  Edward  caused  Da- 
vid the  competitor  of  Lewellyn  to  be  executed,  together  with 
all  the  Welch  poets,  that  he  might  at  one  blow  break  the  spirit 
of  those  hardy  sons  of  liberty,  and  bury  with  them  the  fame 
of  their  exploits,  in  the  songs  of  their  bards. 

Scotland  next  claimed  the  attention  of  Edward.  The 
Scots  had  waged  perpetual  wars  with  the  Picts,  their  neigh- 
bors, through  all  the  invasions  of  the  Danes,  Romans,  Sax- 
ons, Normans  and  French  ;  and  in  838  had  triumphed  over 

12* 


138 


IMPROVEMENTS 


GOVERNMENTS'. 


them,  and  united  the  two  kingdoms  under  Kenneth  II.  their 
69th  king.  This  united  kingdom  had  long  been  formidable 
to  England,  until  Henry  II.  subdued  William,  king  of  Scots, 
and  compelled  him  to  do  homage  for  his  crown. 

Richard  I.  absolved  him  from  this  ;  and  Edward  I.  being 
called  as  umpire  to  settle  the  contested  succession  to  the 
crown,  between  John  Baliol,  and  Robert  Bruce  ;  (competi- 
tors under  female  claims,  about  one  century  after  the  death  of 
William,)  by  a  stratagem  took  the  crown  to  himself,  and  per- 
suaded them,  when  at  a  council  in  Norham  castle  upon  Tweed, 
(in  obedience  to  his  summons,  together  with  all  the  barons  of 
Scotland,)  to  acknowledge  Scotland  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of 
England,  and  swear  fealty  accordingly.  Edward  then  de- 
manded possession  :  this  also  was  granted.  He  then  confer- 
red the  crown  upon  Baliol  ;  this  was  universally  approved, 
and  Baliol  did  homage  to  Edward,  and  was  put  in  possession. 

The  expences  of  Edward  obliged  him  to  have  recourse  to 
his  parliament  for  money,  and  was  the  means  of  establishing 
the  borough  elections,  which  we  noticed  before,  under  the 
<earl  of  Leicester,  which  to  this  day,  make  a  part  of  the  house 
of  commons  in  England.  The  avowed  principle  of  Edward, 
which  led  to  this  step,  was  published  in  his  writs  of  election 
"by  way  of  preamble  :  "  As  it  is  a  most  equitable  rule,  that 
what  concerns  all,  should  be  approved  by  all,  and  common 
dangers  be  repelled  by  united  efforts,"  &c. 

In  this  specimen  may  be  seen  the  first  features  of  Saxon 
liberty,  issuing  from  the  throne,  to  give  life,  strength,  and 
.union  to  a  nation  so  long  oppressed  by  feudal  despotism,  and 
feudal  wars.  This  sentiment,  well  comported  with  that  in 
the  will  of  Alfred  :  "  It  is  just  that  every  Englishman  should 
ever  remain  as  free  as  his  own  thoughts." 

This  third  estate  (then  held  so  contemptible  in  England, 
ami  throughout  Europe,)  has  been  the  means  of  forming  that 
great  balance  of  power  in  the  parliament  of  England,  of  king, 
lords,  and  commons  ;  these,  united  to  their  judiciary  system, 
constituted  a  government  unknown  to  former  ages,  and  unri- 
valled in  the  improvements  of  man.  This  government  formed 
the  basis  of  those  free  governments  which  our  fathers  plan- 
ted, and  and  which  their  sons  have  perfected  in  the  -wisdom  of 
our  federal  system. 

As  soon  as  Edward  had  replenished  his  treasury,  and  re- 
cruited his  army,  he  made  war  upon  king  Baliol,  entered 
Scotland,  took  him  prisoner,  carried  him  to  England,  and 


ENGLAND  AND    SCOTLAND.  139 

confined  him  in  the  tower  ;  destroyed  the  archives  of  Scot- 
land, and  exercised  the  sovereignty,  1290. 

Two  years  after,  Edward  suffered  Baliol  to  depart  to 
France,  where  he  died,  and  Edward  followed,  with  a  view  to 
recover  the  province  of  Guienne,  then  seized  by  Philip  IV. 
styled  the  Fair.  To  effect  tin's,  money  and  allies  were  ne- 
cessary :  to  obtain  the  first,  he  had  recourse  to  his  parlia- 
ment with  success  ;  he  demanded  of  the  clergy  a  fifth  of  all 
their  moveables  ;  this  they  refused,  and  plead  the  bull  of  the 
pope.  Edward  granted  their  plea,  and  at  once  placed  them 
in  a  state  of  outlawry,  by  interdicting  all  their  claims  in  the 
courts  of  justice,  and  leaving  them  exposed  to  the  rigors  of 
the  law.  They  were  soon  harassed  with  insult,  indignity,  and 
pillage,  without  redress,  and  their  spirit  was  broken  ;  here 
was  no  plea  for  persecution  ;  they  yielded  their  supplies  to 
the  support  of  the  crown,  and  were  restored  to  the  protec- 
tion of  the  laws. 

The  ambition  of  Edward,  led  him  to  push  this  money  ex- 
action too  far  :  the  barons,  the  clergy,  and  the  people  resist- 
ed ;  Edward  yielded — added  one  more  article  to  the  liber- 
ties of  magna  charta,  and  settled  the  tranquillity  of  England. 
Philip,  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  his  kingdom,  restored  Gui- 
enne to  Edward,  and  preserved  his  popularity. 

During  these  preparations  against  France,  and  whilst  Ed- 
ward was  in  Flanders,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  Scotland, 
headed  by  one  William  Wallace,  a  desperate  adventurer,  on 
whom  nature  had  bestowed  all  the  great  properties  of  a  for- 
midable leader  in  arms.  His  successes  over  earl  Warren, 
(whom  Edward  had  left  to  finish  the  war  with  Baliol)  had  ac- 
quired him  the  confidence  of  his  countrymen  ;  the  nation  was 
in  arms  ;  expelled  the  English  out  of  Scotland,  entered  the 
north  of  England,  laid  waste  the  country,  and  gave  it  up  to 
plunder. 

Fired  with  indignation  at  this  outrage,  Edward  returned 
into  England,  assembled  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand 
men,  and  entered  Scotland  in  triumph.  Wallace,  (now  be- 
come the  envy  of  the  nobles,)  resigned  his  command,  and  left 
the  insurgents  in  the  hands  of  the  nobles  ;  Edward  attacked 
their  camp,  routed  and  dispersed  their  army,  and  broke  the 
rebellion  ;  but  did  not  subdue  it.  Flying  parties  fled  to  the 
mountains,  and  carried  on  predatory  war,  and  maintained 
their  struggle  for  liberty,  with  some  success.  Wallace  was 
betrayed  to  Edward,  sent  into  England,  condemned  and  ex- 
ercuted  as  a  rebel. 


i40 


LNftLAND  AND    SCOTLAND. 


This  despotic  act,  roused  again  the  spirit  of  Scotland  ;  the 
Scots  were  indignant  at  the  execution  of  a  man,  who  had  by 
his  valor  won  their  hearts,  and  who  had  never  sworn  fealty, 
or  allegiance  to  any  prince.  They  flew  to  arms.  At  the 
same  time,  Robert  Bruce,  son  of  Robert  the  competitor  of 
Baliol,  who  was  then  in  England,  flew  to  the  support  of  his 
country  ;  assembled  the  nobles,  and  declared  his  purpose  to 
live  or  die  free  at  their  head.  This  was  universally  approv- 
ed, except  by  one  Cummin,  who  made  his  objections,  and 
retired  :  Bruce  followed,  and  with  his  sword  sealed  his  op- 
position. The  die  was  now  cast.  Robert  repaired  to  Scone, 
was  crowned  king  of  Scotland,  and  the  nation  were  in  arms. 

Edward  was  ready  ;  an  army  soon  entered  Scotland  ;  the 
parties  engaged  ;  the  conflict  was  desperate  :  Robert  was 
defeated,  and  fled  to  the  western  isles  of  Scotland.  Edward 
advanced  into  Scotland  with  a  powerful  army,  to  complete 
the  conquest ;  sickened  and  died  ;  and  with  his  last  breath 
enjoined  it  upon  his  successor,  to  prosecute  the  war. 

Edward  revived  the  Saxon  laws,  liberties,  and  judicial  tri- 
bunals of  Alfred  ;  made  great  improvements,  and  reduced 
the  whole  to  one  great  system  of  English  liberty.  Edward 
II.  (then  the  first  English  prince  of  Wales,)  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  in  1370. 

Here  opens  a  field  which  fully  shews  the  contrast  in  the 
characters  of  men,  and  fully  proves  how  much  the  strength, 
and  happiness  of  a  kingdom  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  king.  All  men  were  prepared  to  see  young  Edward  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  that  army  which  his  father  had  left 
him,  and  in  the  absence  of  Robert,  strike  UK-  f-ital  blow  to  the 
liberties  of  Scotland.  But  what  must  be  their  astonishment, 
when  they  saw  him  march  back  into  England,  disband  this 
formidable  force,  give  himself  up  to  the  society  of  that  worth- 
less favorite  his  father  had  banished,  and  leave  king  Robert 
to  return  to  his  throne,  and  establish  the  liberties  of  Scotland. 

Enraged  at  this  baseness  in  their  prince,  the  nobility  flew 
to  arms,  compelled  Edward  to  dismiss  his  favorite,  asd  hunt- 
ed him  to  his  execution. 

Robert  now  invaded  England  in  his  turn.  This  roused  up 
Edward  ;  he  assembled  an  army  of  nearly  one  hundred  thou- 
sand men  ;  entered  Scotland,  determined  to  decide  the  war 
at  a  blow.  Robert  met  him  with  thirty  thousand  men  and 
gave  him  battle.  The  champions  advanced  at  the  head  of 
their  truops  ^  Robert  engaged  with  Henry  de  BoJuua  at  the 


DE-ATH  OF  EDWARD  If.  141 

head  of  the  English  cavalry,  and  with  his  battle  axe  cleft  his 
head  to  his  chin.  The  English,  like  the  Philistines  of  old, 
fled  ;  the  Scots  pursued  ;  Robert  by  a  stratagem  threw  them 
into  confusion  ;  the  carnage  was  great  ;  and  Edward  narrow- 
ly escaped,  by  taking  refuge  in  Dunbar  castle  ;  from  thence 
he  sailed  into  England.  Robert  pursued,  entered  England, 
ravaged  the  northern  counties,  and  tilled  the  kingdom  with 
the  terror  of  his  arms. 

Robert  sent  an  army  under  his  brother  to  subdue  Ireland, 
and  an  insurrection  at  the  same  time  broke  out  in  Wales. 
Edward,  sensible  of  his  own  weakness,  raised  the  earl  of  Lan- 
caster to  the  head  of  the  council,  and  consented  to  be  gov- 
erned by  a  minister.  This  excited  jealousies  and  intrigues, 
and  threw  the  councils  of  the  nation  into  disorder. 

Here  originated  that  system  of  ministerial  government, 
which  has  since  proved  so  important  to  the  English  crown. 
Edward,  by  his  unguarded  attachment  to  his  favorite  Spen- 
cer, threw  the  nation  into  a  civil  war,  which  compelled  the 
king  to  banish  his  favorite,  and  insult  the  queen. 

This  roused  Edward  from  his  torpor  ;  he  assembled  his 
forces  ;  took  vengeance  on  Lancaster,  who  headed  the  fac- 
tion ;  executed,  imprisoned,  and  drove  into  banishment  all  the 
others  ;  confiscated  their  estates  ;  concluded  a  truce  with 
Scotland  for  thirteen  years,  and  recalled  Spencer.  This  in- 
censed his  queen;  she  retired  to  her  brother,  in  France, 
Charles  the  fair  ;  here  she  fell  in  with  that  Robert  Mortimer, 
who  had  escaped  from  the  tower,  when  under  sentence  for 
high  treason  ;  and  with  the  intrigues  of  Mortimer,  and  sev- 
eral fugitive  English  barons,  plotted  the  ruin  of  Edward. 

The  queen  by  a  public  declaration  disclosed  her  resent- 
ment against  Spencer.  The  nobility  supported  her  :  she 
landed  in  England  ;  Edward  fled  into  Wales  for  safety,  and 
the  favorite  Spencer  and  his  father  were  both  sacrificed  to 
popular  rage.  The  queen  summoned  a  parliament  ;  Edward 
was  deposed  ;  the  young  prince,  then  fourteen  years  of  age, 
placed  upon  the  throne,  and  the  queen  appointed  regent. 

Here  stands  a  catalogue  of  crimes,  too  black  to  be  record- 
ed. But  what  shall  we  say,  when  we  read  that  Edward  soon 
fell  a  sacrifice,  and  expired  under  the  most  barbarous,  and 
horrid  murder,  1327.  These  scenes  would  add  one  more 
shade  to  the  crimes  of  the  fifth  century. 


142  HOUSE  OF    AUSTRIA,    SWITZERLAND. 

CHAP.  XV. 

Germany    and    Switzerland — Italy — France — Knights    Tem- 
plars. 

DURING  these  operations  in  England,  Rodolph  of  Haps- 
burg,  who  had  obtained  the  imperial  throne,  (after  the  long 
interregnum,)  devoted  himself  to  quiet  the  teuds,  excesses, 
and  abuses  which  had  sprung  up  in  Germany  ;  acquitted  him- 
self successfully,  and  became  very  popular.  He  suffered 
some  disappointment  in  the  loss  of  his  son  Rodolph,  duke  of 
Suabia,  and  in  failing  in  his  attempt  to  procure  the  crown  of 
the  Romans,  for  his  eldest  son  Albert,  whom  he  had  made 
duke  of  Austria  ;  and  caused  this  duchy  to  be  annexed  to  the 
electoral  college.  This  gave  rise  to  the  house  of  Austria,  in 
.12.82. 

Although  Rodolph's  crown  had  been  confirmed  by  Grego- 
ry X.  Italy  had  not  yielded  to  his  authority  ;  and  when  he 
could  not  procure  for  his  son  Albert,  the  Iloman  crown,  he 
endeavoured  to  console  himself  with  aggrandizing  the  duchy 
of  Austria,  and  died  in  1291  ;  having  done  every  thing  in  his 
power  for  his  country. 

Adolphus  of  Nassau,  was  raised  to  the  imperial  throne, 
1292.  His  injustice  soon  rendered  him  unpopular,  and  the 
archbishop  of  Mentz,  at  the  head  of  a  faction,  deposed  him, 
and  raised  Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  to  the  throne. 

Albert  drew  his  sword  to  maintain  his  claim  ;  and  Adol- 
phus advanced  at  the  head  of  his  army,  to  dispute* the  prize. 
They  met  near  Rosendel,  and  an  action  ensued.*  Adolphus, 
in  the  heat  of  the  action,  espied  his  rival,  put  spurs  to  his 
horse,  advanced  to  the  combat,  and  exclaimed  :  "  Here  you 
shall  resign  me  the  empire,  and  your  life."  "  Both,"  replied 
Albert,  "  are  in  the  hands  of  God  ;"  and  struck  his  competi- 
tor dead  at  his  feet.  Albert  was  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
1298. 

Three  German  princes  had  refused  to  Albert  their  votes  : 
these  soon  became  the  tools  of  pope  Boniface  VIII.;  but 
w-ere  brought  to' submit  upon  political  motives,  and  Boniface 
obtained  a  concession  from  Albert,  that  "  emperors  and  kings 
derive  their  regal  power  from  the  pope." 

During  this  reign,  the  oppressions  of  Albert  through  his 
governors,-roused  the  spirit  of  the  provinces  of  Switzerland  •; 
and  when  Grisler  the  governor,  compelled  William  Tell  to 


William  Tell  was  condemned  by  Grisler,  the  tyrant  gover- 
nor of  £7/7,  to  be  hanged,  unless  he  should  be  able  to  strike  with 
an  arrow,  an  apple  from  his  son's  head.  Being  an  excellent 
marksman,  he  cleft  it  without  injury  to  his  son;  but  Grisler 
perceiving  another  arrow  under  his  cloke.  asked  him  for  what 
purpose  ll>  at  was  intended.  Tell  replied,  "  it  was  intended  for 
thee  if  I  had  killed  my  son  /"  For  this  heroic  answer  he  was 
condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment.  Both  the  extremes  of 
tyranny  and  oppression  often  become  the  causes  of  restoring 
that  liberty  they  were  designed  to  destroy. 


SICILIAN    VESPERS.  143 

e  oft'  with  his  bow  and  arrow,  an  apple  placed  upon  the 
head  of  his  son,  to  save  his  own  life  ;  the  nation  were  alive 
at  the  outrage.  Tell  struck  off  the  apple,  and  at  the  same 
time  discovered  another  arrow  under  his  cloke,  which  he  de- 
clared was  designed  for  the  heart  of  Grisler,  had  he  killed 
his  son. 

Grisler  in  a  rage,  doomed  him  to  perpetual  imprisonment. 
The  Swiss  rose,  seized  all  the  Austrian  governors,  conduct- 
ed them  safely  to  the  frontier,  made  them  swear  never  to 
serve  against  Switzerland,  dismissed  them,  and  delivered 
their  country. 

Albert  attempted  to  march  to  the  subjection  of  Switzer- 
land, but  his  career  was  arrested  by  his  nephew  John,  who 
stabbed  him  on  his  way,  in  presence  of  all  his  court.  The 
enterprize  was  abandoned,  and  the  liberties  of  Switzerland 
were  preserved. 

In  the  year  1309  Henry  count  of  Luxemberg  was  elected 
emperor,  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  immediately  turn- 
ed his  attention  to  Italy,  which  had  been  neglected  during  the 
long  feuds  and  interregnums  of  Germany.  Here  the  factions 
of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelines  raged  without  mercy,  and 
rendered  both  parties  the  subjects  of  indiscriminate  butchery, 
without  feeling  or  remorse. 

The  old  quarrels  of  emperors  and  popes,  were  now  lost  in 
the  strife  of  factions,  and  the  pope,  Clement  V.  no  longer 
safe  in  Rome,  took  shelter  in  France  for  several  years. 

Sicily  was  relieved  from  the  French,  by  the  massacre  of 
the  Sicilian  Vespers,  and  the  house  of  Arragon  seized  on  the 
Island.  The  same  spirit  of  intrigue,  faction,  cruelty  and 
blood  raged  throughout  Italy,  and  rendered  it  an  aceldama. 

In  the  midst  of  these  scenes  of  wretchedness  and  distress, 
Henry  appeared,  and  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  king  of 
Lombardy,  by  a  new  iron  crown,  in  place  of  the  old  one 
which  they  had  removed.  Henry  marched  through  the 
cities  of  Italy,  received  their  submission,  and  repaired  to 
Rome,  where  he  humbled  the  factions  with  his  sword,  and 
was  crowned  by  the  cardinals. 

Henry  proceeded  to  appoint  a  Roman  governor,  and  levy 
a  tax  upon  the  cites  of  Italy,  "  when  he  was  taken  off  by 
poison,  given  him  in  the  consecrated  wine  of  the  sacrament, 
by  a  Dominican  friar,  1313."  At  this  time  the  knights  of 
the  teutonic  order  seized  on  Dantzic,  and  purchavfed  Pome- 
£ania  of  the  duke  of  Brandenburg. 


144  STATES'  GENERAL  OF  FRANCE. 

France,  at  this  time  under  Philip  III.  had  been  involved  i 
a  war  to  secure  the  crown  of  Sicily  for  his  uncle  Charles, 
who  had  been  expelled  by  means  of  the  massacre  of  the  Si- 
cilian Vespers,  1282.  This  event  took  place  in  consequence 
of  an  insult  offered  by  a  Frenchman  to  a  young  Sicilian  bride, 
as  she  passed  with  her  nuptial  train  near  the  city  of  Palermo. 
'1  he  populace  who  hated  the  French,  resented  the  affront ; 
and  a  young  Sicilian,  fired  with  indignation,  killed  the  offender* 

The  people  assembled,  a  conflict  began,  butchery  ensued  ; 
the  populace  enraged,  took  vengeance  on  the  offenders,  cry- 
ing "  kill  the  French,  kill  the  French."  A  general  butchery 
followed,  without  regard  to  either  age  or  sex,  until 
French  person  was  exterminated  from  Palermo.  The  rage 
then  became  general,  until  the  massacre  extended  through- 
out the  island  ;  even  the  sanctuaries  of  religion  were  viola- 
ted, and  the  priests  butchered  all  the  French  penitents. 

Philip  III.  attempted  by  his  intrigues  with  the  pope,  to  se 
cure  the  crown  of  Sicily  to  his  own  family,  amidst  these  con- 
flicting passions  ;  but  failed,  and  the  adventure  terminated 
the  ruin  of  the  parties,  the  death  of  Charles,  the  ex-king  o 
Sicily,  the  ruin  of  his  fleet,  the  capture  of  his  son,  and  the 
death  of  Philip  III. 

Philip  IV.  (his  son)  styled  the  fair,  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
He  began  to  form  the  government  of  France  upon  the  English 
plan,  under  Edward  I.  with  the  three  estates,  which  form 
an  important  epoch  in  the  annals  of  France.     Philip  compos 
ed  the  feuds  of  his  kingdom,  by  the  mediation  of  Edward  I. 
of  England,  and  paid  him,  by  supporting  the  Scotch  rebellion 
with  open  war. 

Philip  adopted  the  measures  ot  Edward  I.  by  exacting  sup- 
plies from  the  rich  clergy  for  the  support  of  the  crown. 
Boniface  VIII.  put  his  veto  upon  ecclesiastical  revenues  be- 
ing applied  to  the  support  of  princes,  by. his  special  bull  ; 
and  the  parties  were  at  issue. 

Boniface  sent  the  bishop  of  Pamiers  to  Paris,  to  denounce 
Philip,  and  interdict  his  kingdom,  if  he  did  not  desist  fro 
his  purpose.  , Philip  delivered  him  over  to  ecclesiastical 
censure  and  confinement,  under  the  power  of  the  archbishop 
ofNarbonne. 

Boniface  came  out  with  a  bull  declaring,  "  that  the  vicar 
of  Christ,  is  vested  with  full  authority  over  the  kings  and 
kingdoms  of  the  earth."  The  clergy  of  France  were  sum- 
moned to  Rome.  Philip  ordered  the  bull  to  be  burnt,  and 


KNIGHTS    TEMPLARS.  145 

the  clergy  not  to  leave  the  kingdom.  Many,  however, 
obeyed  the  mandate  of  the  pope,  and  Philip  confiscated  their 
estates.  He  then  summoned  his  parliament  (which  for  the 
first  time,  admitted  the  representatives  of  cities,)  they  set  the 
bull  at  defiance,  and  supported  the  king. 

Here  was  the  origin  of  the  assembly  of  the  states'  general 
in  France  ;  here  Philip  found  himself  supported  by  the  na- 
tion, and  set  the  pope  at  defiance.  The  affair  ended  in  the 
disgrace  and  death  of  Boniface,  who  was  succeeded  by  Ben- 
edict IX.  He  attempted,  by  mild  and  equitable  measures, 
to  heal  the  divisions  of  the  church,  and  was  poisoned  for  the 
good  he  attempted  to  do.  Clement  V.  succeeded  to  the  chair. 
He  was  a  Frenchman,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  France. 

Under  the  sanction  of  this  pope,  Philip  undertook  to  abol- 
ish the  order  of  knights  templars  in  France.  This  body  of 
men  were  associated  into  a  religious  society  of  knighthood, 
in  the  time  of  the  crusades,  amongst  the  most  distinguished 
champions  of  the  cross.  At  this  time  they  were  numerous 
in  France  ;  rich,  and  passed  their  lives  in  ease,  and  elegant 
amusements,  as  gentlemen  of  France. 

Philip  denounced  the  order,  doomed  them  all  to  imprison- 
ment, throughout  France,  in  one  day,  and  published  the  most 
daring  accusations  against  them.  To  support  these  accusa- 
tions, he  put  them  to  the  rack,  to  extort  confessions  of  their 
guilt.  Some  denied  the  charges,  and  died  with  firmness  : 
some,  through  weakness,  confessed  whatever  they  were 
charged  with  ;  others  declared  the  absurdity  of  such  proceed- 
ings, and  plead  the  religion,  zeal,  and  gallant  exploits  which 
had  so  long  rendered  their  order  illustrious  ;  but  all  without 
effect.  They  were  rich  :  lived  at  ease  ;  and  their  destruc- 
tion was  sealed.  This  vindictive  persecution  was  pursued, 
until  the  rack,  the  scaffold,  and  the  flames  ;  exterminated  the 
templars  in  France  ;  and  Philip  confiscated  their  estates. 

Clement  V.yet  in  France,  assembled  a  council  at  Vienna, 
abolished  the  whole  order,  and  thus  by  the  plenitude  of  hi.-* 
power  confirmed  their  ruin,  in  1312.  This  bull  of  the  pope 
led  to  the  same  violence  against  the  templars  throughout  Eu- 
rope. They  were  thrown  into  prison,  sacrificed  and  plun- 
dered, and  their  estates  confiscated.  Philip  soon  sunk  under 
the  weight  of  such  acctimulatod  guilt  and  distress  ;  Immm-b- 
ed  with  a  consumption,  and  died  in  the  forty-seventh  ; 
I; is  n!>;c,  A.  D.  1314. 

Philip  wns  eucceed'^d  !>v  his  son  Lewi?  X.      Avaric 
13 


146  EL  WARD    III. 

cruelty,  with  some  rmbition,  were  the  characteristics  of  his 
reign,  and  he  died  in  1316. 


CHAP.  XVI. 

France  and  thi  Salic  Law — England  and  Scotland — Englam 
and  France — Battle  of  Cressy. 

THE  momentary  appearance  of  a  female  succession,  in  an 
infant  daughter  of  Lewis  X.  was  sufficent  to  call  the  attentioi 
of  the  French  nation  to  the  Salic  law,  which  excluded  all  fe- 
males from  the  throne  of  France.  This  supposed  law,  was 
found  to  exist  only  in  usage,  or  custom,  borrowed  from  the 
Salian  tribe,  who  dwelt  in  Gaul  when  Pharamond  came  over 
the  Rhine  with  his  Franks.  This  usage,  amongst  those 
barbarians,  so  essential  to  their  safety  and  peace  in  that 
barbarous  age,  was  adopted  into  the  government  of  the 
Franks,  and  continues  to  be  the  usage  of  France.  In  defect 
nt'  mule  issue,  Philip  de  Valois,  cousin  of  Lewis,  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  1328. 

This  dispute  in  France,  opened  a  field  for  the  talents  of 
Edward  III.  king  of  England.  When  Edward  had  caused 
the  persecutions  which  were  carried  on  by  earl  Mortimer, 
and  the  queen  mother,  against  the  earl  of  Kent,  and  the  earl 
of  Lancaster,  to  he  suppressed,  by  giving  up  Mortimer  to  the 
vengeance  of  an  incensed  nobility,  and  the  queen  to  the  judg- 
ment of  his  parliament  ;  he  gave  his  attention  to  those  abus- 
es which  had  arisen  out  of  the  murder  of  his  father.  He  is- 
sued orders  to  the  judges,  to  cause  the  laws  to  be  executed 
upon  all  criminals,  of  whatever  class,  or  distinction.  Ho 
soon  suppressed  the  murderous  depredations  of  the  barons  ; 
urid  the  ministers  of  justice,  by  their  vigilance  and  rigid  exe- 
cution of  the  laws,  restored  the  public  order  and  tranquillity. 

Under  this  prosperous  state  of  affairs,  Edward  turned  Ins 
attention  to  the  rebellious  Scots.  The  renowned  Bruce.  --.  h<; 
had  recovered  the.  liberties  oi  his  country  by  his  treaty  with 
earl  Mortimer,  as  regent,  was  now  dead,  and  the  crown  w«s 
in  the  hands  of  Randolph,  earl  of  Murray,  as  a  regent  for 
David,  the  son  of  Bruce,  then  a  minor. 

Edward  Baliol,  (son  of  John  Baliol,  the  former  competitor 
of  the  former  Robert  Bruce,)  was  now  immured  in  a  Fjvin-h 


AFFAIRS  OF  SCOTLAND.  1-1 7 

.  by  a  suit  of  lord  Beaumont,  a  baron  of  England,  upon 
a  contested  claim  in  Scotland.  Many  other  English  noble- 
men were  in  the  same  condition  with  Baliol. 

These  all  made  application  to  Edward  III.  to  assist  them 
in  the  recovery  of  their  liberties  and  estates.  Edward  en- 
couraged, what  he  considered  unwise  openly  to  avow  ;  Bali- 
ol was  released  from  confinement,  together  with  the  other 
English  nobles  ;  revived  his  claims  to  the  crown  of  Scotland, 
assembled  a  force  of  about  three  thousand  men,  and  with  his 
adherents,  landed  in  Scotland.  Bruce,  the  victorious,  was 
gone  ;  the  earl  of  Murray  was  gone  ;  and  lord  Douglas  was 
on  a  crusade  in  Spain  against  the  Moors. 

Baliol  availed  himself  of  this  state  of  affairs,  attacked  the 
earl  of  Mar,  (who  was  ready  to  receive  him,  with  forty 
thousand  men  ;}  routed,  and  put  to  flight  his  army  with 
great  slaughter  ;  followed  his  victory  into  the  heart  of  Scot- 
land, took  Perth,  and  arrived  at  Scone,  where  he  was  crown- 
ed ;  thus  Scotland  was  subdued  with  an  army  of  three  thou- 
sand men. 

The  good  fortune  of  king  Baliol  caused  his  ruin  ;  he,  for 
some  unwise  purpose,  dismissed  his  English  followers,  and  in 
this  weak  situation  Lord  Douglas  surprised  him  by  a  sudden 
attack,  routed  and  dispersed  his  army,  slew  his  brother,  and 
pursued  him  into  England,  a  fugitive  in  distress. 

Edward  could  no  longer  conceal  what  it  now  became  his 
interest  to  support  ;  he  yielded  to  the  overtures  of  king  Bali- 
ol, raised  an  army,  and  entered  Scotland  to  restore  the  king. 
The  two  armies  met  at  Haledown-Hill,  a  desperate  action 
was  fought,  thirty-one  thousand  Scots  were  slain,  the  nobility 
were  all  destroyed  or  taken,  a  parliament  was  assembled, 
Baliol  restored  to  the  throne,  the  superiority  again  acknowl- 
edged, and  Edward  received  the  fealty  of  Scotland,  1334.  In 
two  years  the  Scots  rebelled,  expelled  Baliol,  recovered 
their  liberties,  set  Edward  and  his  army  at  defiance,  and  the 
intrigues  of  France  supported  their  claims. 

This  interference  of  France  kindled  a  resentment  in  the 
breast  of  Edward,  and  he  resolved  to  remove  this  opposition 
by  putting  in  his  claim  to  the  contested  crown  of  France. 
During  this  paper  controversy  of  claims,  Robert  de  Artois, 
brother-in-law  to  Philip  VI.  a  valiant  Prince,  fled  from  the 
persecutions  of  Philip,  andtook  refuge  at  the  court  of  Edward. 

The  address  of  II olv.t  to  Edward  was,  "  I  made  Philip 
V  1.  king  of  Franco,  and  with  your  assistance  I  will  depo?r 


148 


EJT6LAND  ANB 


him  for  his  ingratitude."  This  language  gratified  the  resent- 
ment of  Edward,  and  the  field  of  controversy  was  now  open, 
that  field  of  controversy,  which  kindled  a  train  of  passions 
that  have  never  been  extinguished,  and  which  can  never  be 
extinguished,  so  long  as  the  independence  of  the  two  nations 
shall  continue  to  exist. 

The  predecessors  of  Philip  VI.  had  excited  a  jealousy  ii 
the  low  countries  (or  Flanders)  towards  the  French,  and  the 
ambition  of  Philip  the  fair  had  fanned  the  flame — here  Ed- 
ward turned  his  attention  for  alliance  and  support  in  the  We 
he  contemplated  against  France. 

las  first  object  was  to  find  a  demagouge  whom  he  coul< 
attach  to  his  interest,  arid  who  could  unite  the  Flemings  in 
his  cause  ;  such  a  man  he  soon  found  in  James  D'Arteville, 
a  brewer  of  Ghent.  This  was  the  most  popular  and  influen- 
tial man  in  Flanders,  who  was  ready  to  throw  all  his  influence 
into  the  scale  of  the  king  of  England. 

Edward  who  had  secured  the  support  of  his  father-in-lan 
the  duke  of  Hainault,  the  duke  of  Brabant,  the  archbishop  oi 
Cologne,  the  duke  of  Guelder,  the  marquis  of  Juliers,  an< 
the  count  of  Namar,  had  opened  the  way  for  his  future  move- 
ments, and  was  ready  to  put  all  his  vast  plans  and  prepara- 
tions into  operation. 

Edward  embarked  a  body  of  troops,  repaired  to  Flanders. 
set  up  his  claim  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  the  allies  wit) 
D'Arteville,  and  his  Flemings  were  ready  to  support  hi< 
claims.  Philip  was  prepared,  and  the  campaign  in  Flanders 
was  opened  ;  long  and  intriguing  conferences  wasted  the 
season,  the  armies  remained  inactive,  and  little  vftis  done. 
Edward,  distressed  for  money  and  supplies,  abandoned  hi: 
enterprise,  and  returned  to  England. 

The  next  season  opened  the  theatre  of  war  upon  the  wa- 
fer. Edward,  with  a  powerful  fleet,  obtained  a  signal  victon 
ever  the  French,  took  and  destroyed  one  hundred  and  thirtj 
ships,  and  killed  thirty  theusand  men.  Both  admirals  fell 
in  the  engagement. 

Flushed  with  the  splendor  of  this  victory,   Edward  agaii 
assembled  an  army,  embarked  for  Flanders,  joined  the  allies 
as  before,  and  began  his  operations,  by  invading  the  frontiei 
of  France,  at  the  head  of  more  than  one  hundred  thousam 
men. 

Philip  acted  the  Fabius,  declined  the  combat,  and  left  Ed- 
ward the  employment  of  wasting  the  campaign  in  fruitles 


«.;OUNTE3S  OF    MOUNTFORT. 

sieges.  Edward,  tired  ofthis  warfare,  and  impatient  to  end 
a  war  he  was  in  no  situation  to  prolong,  fur  the  want  of  mon- 
ey, sent  a  challenge  to  Philip  to  decide  their  claims  by  single 
combat.  Philip  replied  "  It  does  not  become  a  vassal  'o 
challenge  his  liege  lord,"  (referring  to  Edward's  homage  for 
Guienne  in  France.)  This  was  conclusive,  and  a  truce  was 
concluded  for  one  year,  1340. 

This  truce  opened  the  way  for  a  new  scene  which  brought 
into  view  the  splendid  talents  of  the  countess  of  Mountfort. 
The  count  of  Mountfort  seized  on  the  duchy  of  Brittany,  in 
exclusion  to  Charles  of  Blois,  brother  of  Philip  VI.  repaired 
to  the  court  of  Edward,  and  negociated  an  alliance,  by 
offering  to  do  homage  to  Edward  for  Brittany,  as  king  of 
France.  The  terms  were  soon  settled,  and  the  parties  pre- 
pared for  action  ;  the  count  was  taken  prisoner  soon  after, 
and  the  countess  stepped  in  and  assumed  the  defence.  Fired 
with  indignation  for  the  wrongs  of  her  husband,  she  viewed 
in  person  all  the  fortresses  of  defence,  supplied  and  animat- 
ed the  garrisons,  and  waited  at  Hennebone  the  succours  of 
Edward. 

Charles  entered  the  duchy,  laid  siege  to  Hennebone,  de- 
termined to  secure  the/duchess  before  the  succours  of  Edwa:  d 
could  arrive  ;  the  prize  was  the  duchy  of  Brittany  and  the 
countess  of  Mountfort,  and  the  efforts  of  the  siege  were  con- 
ducted accordingly  ;  attacks  ,vere  frequent,  sharp,  and  even 
desperate  and  bloody  ;  the  defence  was  rendered  desperate 
by  the  all-commanding  presence  of  the  countess,  a  breach 
was  made  in  the  walls,  the  conflict  became  still  more  despe- 
rrison  were  weakened  by  their  repeated  conflicts 
aiid  losses,  despair  began  to  seize  on  the  citizens,  and  the 
countess  ascended  her  tower  once  more,  to  take  a  view  of 
that  sea,  from  which  she  had  so  often  looked  in  vain  for  Ed- 
ward her  deliverer. 

She  discovered  the  fleet;  Edward  •  had  sent  Sir  Walter 
'"am.'/  to  the  relief  of  the  countess,  his  fleet  entered  the  har- 
l>or,  h-nuled  his  troops,  joined  the  besieged,  made  a  desperate 
•ally,  drove  Charles  from  his  camp,  and  satfed  the  town. 

Tine  war  now  raged  with  fresh  violence  ;  Charles  redou 
»led  his  efforts  ;  Sir  Walter  did  valiantl'y,  with  inferior  num  • 
:>era  ;    Edward  sent  over -a  reinforcement  under  Robert  of 
•\rtois;  Robert  was  slain,  Edward  then  went  in  person,  o 
• -race  v/as  concluded  for  three  years  j  and  the  countess  heir1 
possession  of  BriUanv,  1343, 
13* 


150  BATTLE    OF    CRESSY. 

The  parliament  of  England  now  became  useful  to  the 
crown  :  they  entered  with  spirit  into  the  war,  granted  liber- 
al supplies,  and  by  their  zeal,  Edward  invaded  Normandy 
the  next  year,  to  recover  the  possessions  of  his  ancestors. 
This  enterprize  was  successful  in  Normandy,  and  led  Ed- 
ward to  the  gates  of  Paris;  but  Philip,  at  the  head  of  one 
hundred  thousand  men,  compelled  Edward  to  retire  towards 
Flanders.  His  situation  now  became  critical  :  the  river 
Somme  obstructed  his  march,  and  covered  the  position  of 
De  Fay,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  who  had  destroyed 
the  bridges. 

Pressed  on  his  front  and  rear  by  two  such  powerful  ar- 
mies in  the  heart  of  France,  Edward  saw  that  safety  de- 
pended on  immediate  action.  He  drew  his  sword  at  the 
head  of  his  army,  plunged  into  the  river,  like  the  hero  of 
Macedon,  at  the  Grannicus,  attacked  De  Fay,  drove  him 
from  his  position,  and  recovered  the  plains,  at  the  critical 
moment  when  Philip  came  up  with  his  whole  army.  Ed- 
ward was  delivered  ! 

That  tide,  which  at  its  ebb  had  opened  a  passage  for  the 
English  nrmy,  now  by  its  return,  obstructed  the  French.  So 
critical  are  the  operations  of  war.  Edward,  resolved  to 
avail  himself  of  his  successes,  and  turn  the  ardor  of  his  troops 
1o  his  best  advantage  ;  took  a  position  near  Cressy,  and  wait- 
ed the  approach  of  Philip. 

Philip  advanced  ;  the  onset  commenced  at  3  o'clock — the 
conflict  was  general,  desperate  and  bloody.  Edward  was 
victorious — Philip  fled — Edward  pursued,  and  the  carnage 
was  terrible  :  forty  thousand  French  strewed  the  plains  of 
Cressy,  and  night  only,  saved  Philip  and  his  army  from  total 
ruin,  August  26th,  1346.  The  young  prince  Edward,  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  action,  and  shewed  that  he  was  wor- 
thy of  his  sire.  Here  was  the  first  trial  of  cannon  in  the  wars 
f>f  Europe  :  Edward  supported  itis  line  by  four  pieces  of  iron 
cannon.  Edward  left  Philip  to  pursue  his  flight, drew  offEis 
army,  and  invested  Calais. 


CHAP.  XVII. 

England  and  Scotland — general  plague — invasion  of  France 
d  the  black  Prince — 'battle  ofPoictiers — ci'tz?  w 


QUEEN  PHILIPPA.  151 

of  France — Edward  the  Black  Prince  renews  the  war  with 
France — peace  and  conditions. 

PHILIP  VI.  by  his  intrigues,  excited  a  war  in  Scotland,  in 
order  to  weaken  Edward,  and  cramp  his  ambitious  plans 
against  France.  For  this  purpose  David  Bruce,  (descend- 
ant of  the  great  Robert,)  who  had  been  seated  upon  the 
throne  of  Scotland,  assembled  an  army,  and  entered  England 
victorious. 

England  was  now  doubly  armed — Edward  was  in  France, 
contending  for  the  crown  of  that  kingdom,  which  perpetuates 
the  custom  of  the  Salian  tribe,  and  deems  woman  unfit  to 
rule.  Edward's  queen,  Philippa,  was  in  England,  to  support 
the  royal  power,  and  secure  the  peace  of  the  realm. 

Fired  with  just  indignation  at  the  daring  invasion  of  Da- 
vid, Philippa  put  herself  at  the  head  of  twelve  thousand  men, 
and  marched  out  to  meet  the  marauder — an  action  commenc- 
ed ;  the  Scots  were  overthrown  with  great  slaughter  ;  fif- 
teen thousand  fell  in  the  action,  with  their  principal  chiefs  ; 
David,  and  his  nobility  were  taken  ;  England  was  delivered, 
and  Philippa  triumphant  Oct.  17,  1346. 

This  signal  exploit,  at  this  critical  moment,  was  a  severe 
philippic  upon  the  Salic  law,  and  might  have  taught  France 
that  woman  could  rule.  Philippa  secured  her  royal  prison- 
er, set  sail  for  France,  and  joined  Edward  before  Calais.  The 
siege  was  pushed  with  vigor,  and  in  twelve  months,  Calais 
added  one  more  trophy  to  the  successes  of  Edward. 

Pope  Clement  VI.  sent  his  legate  as  a  mediator  between 
the  parties  :  a  truce  was  settled,  Calais  was  confirmed  to  Ed- 
ward, and  he  returned  to  England,  1348. 

The  successes  of  Edward,  and  queen  Philippa,  kindled  a 
spirit  of  -ambition  and  emulation,  in  the  court  of  Edward,  un- 
known before  in  England.  Chivalry  and  gallantry,  temper- 
ed with  English  manners,  gave  a  lustre  to  the  English,  unri- 
valled, if  not  unknown,  in  Europe  :  and  amidst  the  festivity 
of  these  scenes,  an  incident,  innocent  and  trifling  in  itself, 
gave  rise  to  this  memorable  motto.  "  Honi  soit  qui  mal  y 
pense  :"  (evil  to  him  that  evil  thinks.)  This  motto  with  its 
incident,  occasioned  the  order  of  the  garter,  by  Edward,  1350. 

Amidst  the  excesses  of  the  passions  of  this  age,  God  visit- 
ed the  earth  with  his  judgments,  by  pestilence,  as  well  as  by 
the  sword.  A  general  plague  prevailed  throughout  Asia, 
Africa,,  and  Europe,  and  swept  off  about  one  third  of  the 


152  GENERAL    PLAGUE, 


ition 


whole  family  of  man.  Wars  were  suspended  :  dissipation 
was  changed  into  gloom  ;  and  the  whole  earth  became  one 
great  hospital  of  the  sick,  the  dying,  arid  the  dead.  Fifty 
thousand  fell  a  sacrifice  in  the  single  city  of  London. 

Philip  the  VI.  died,  and  left  his  throne  to  his  son  John  III. 
1350.  During  this  reign,  a  civil  war  raged  in  France,  head- 
ed hy  Charles,  king  of  Navarre,  surnamed  the  bad.  This 
appellation  was  the  more  forcibly  true,  when  contrasted  with 
the  good  qualities  of  John.  Charles  sprang  from  Lewis  X. 
by  the  mother's  side,  and  laid  claim  to  the  crown  of  France. 
He  made  court  to  Edward  III.  ;  excited  Charles,  the  eldest 
son  of  John  II.  to  favour  his  plans  ;  and  filled  France  with 
his  intrigues.  In  the  midst  of  these  scenes,  Charles  repented 
of  his  folly,  and  did  penance,  by  delivering  the  king  of  Na- 
varre, and  other  nobles  of  his  party  into  the  hands  of  his  fath- 
er John,  who  delivered  them  up  to  execution,  and  imprisoned 
the  king  of  Navarre. 

In  the  midst  of  these  scenes,  the  truce  with  Edward  at  Ca- 
lais was  closed,  and  war  was  renewed.  The  prince  of  Wales, 
who  had  signalized  himself  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  took  the 
field,  and  penetrated,  like  his  father,  into  the  heart  of 
France,  at-the  head  of  only  twelve  thousand  men.  John  as- 
sembled sixty  thousand,  took  the  field,  and  met  the  prince 
near  Poictiers  ;  Edward,  with  his  little  army  were  immedi- 
ately surrounded,  and  all  hope  of  escape  cut  oif. 

John,  at  the  head  of  his  superior  army,  was  too  impatient 
to  wait  the  regular  fall  of  the  prince,  by  a  want  of  supplies  ; 
but  drew  his  sword,  and  advanced  to  the  conflict,  determin- 
ed to  reduce  him  at  a  blow.  •  Edward  was  ready — the  crisis 
was  desperate,  and  the  conflict  terrible  ;  the  English  receiv- 
ed the  shock  with  firmness  ;  the  Frenclr  were  charged  in 
their  turn,  broken,  routed,  and  fled  ;  the  carnage  was  great, 
and  John  a  prisoner.  Edward  received  the  captirf-  ki;  ••; 
with  great  dignity,  and  complacency,  and  gave  God  the 
praise,  Sept.  19,  1356. 

Edward,  styled  the  black  prince,  (from  the  colour  of  hb 
armour,)  concluded  a  truce  of  two  years,  and  conducted  tre 
captive  icing  to  "England,  where  he  continued  to  discover  the 
same  greatness  of  soul,  in -his  amiable  and  dignified  depoif- 
mentto  king  John,  and  rendered  his  residence  in  Engla*  ' 
such  as  became  a  king.  David,  king  of  Scotland,  w:;?  at  this 
time  the  companion  oJ  \\i-?.  king  of  France  hi  capt'vi' 
land. 


CIVIL  WAR  IN    FRANCE.  153 

The  affairs  of  France  were  now  become  desperate. 
Charles,  the  dauphin  prince,  (so  styled  from  the  province  of 
Dauphiny'g  being  annexed  to  the  crown,  like  the  principality 
of  Wales  in  England,)  assumed  the  reins  of  government  in 
the  absence  of  his  father,  and  to  provide  supplies  for  the 
support  of  the  crown,  had  recourse  to  his  states'  general, 
after  the  manner  of  Edward  III.  of  England  ;  but  not  with  the 
same  success.  They  met  him  ;  but  with  demands  to  redress 
their  own  grievances,  and  to  deliver  the  king  of  Navarre, 
(Charles  the  bad.) 

Marcel,  provost  of  Paris,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  assem- 
bly, put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  populace  of  Paris,  mur- 
dered all  the  great  mareschals  of  France,  in  the  presence  of 
the  dauphin,  threatened  all  the  court,  and  held  the  dauphin 
under  their  control  ;  Charles  withdrew,  and  they  levied 
open  war. 

All  France  took  the  alarm,  flew  to  arms,  and  assumed  the 
government  ;  the  days  of  the  fifth  century  were  renewed  ; 
anarchy,  rapine,  desolation,  and  carnage,  ravaged  France. 
The  war  of  peasants  against  the  Nobles,  or  more  extensive- 
ly, the  poor  against  the  rich,  filled  France  with  every  des- 
cription of  cruelty,  and  unhallowed  barbarity  ;  neither  age 
nor  sex  were  spared  ;  the  castles  of  the  nobles  were  pillaged, 
sacked,  and  destroyed,  their  proprietors  hunted  like  wild 
beasts  of  the  forest,  and  France  filled  with  excesses  too 
shocking  to  relate. 

The  tocsin  of  the  late  revolution,  marked  then,  the  title 
page  of  this  first  revolutionary  volume  :  "  Peace  with  the 
cWttage,  war  with  the  palace."  Nine  thousand  of  these  un- 
hallowed sons  of  rapine,  burst  into  the  city  ofMeaux,  where 
the  princess  of  the  Dauphin,  the  duchess  ofOrleans,  and  more 
than  three  hundred  other  ladies  of  distinction  had  taken 
shelter.  Chivalry  armed  with  the  protecting  sword  of  the 
illustrious  Count-de-Foix,  the  Captal  de  Buche,  with  sixty 
other  knights,  flew  to  their  relief,  and  by  their  desperate 
valor  drove  off  the  boors,  protected  defenceless  innocence, 
and  added  one  more  illustrious  example,  that  chivalry  was 
the  protector  of  chastity  and  virtue. 

During  these  scenes,  Charles,  king  of  Navarre,  made  his 
escape,  set  up  his  claim  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  became 
the  head  of  the  banditti.  The  death  of  Marcel  distracted  the 
mob  of  Paris,  and  they  began  to  feel  the  pressure  of  distress, 
and  turned  their  attention  to  the  dauphin  to  restore  tranquil- 
lity. 


154  FRANCE  AND    ENGLAND. 

This  change  in  the  capital,  became  general  ;  arid  order 
was  restored  to  France,  as  far  as  the  situation  of  the  nation 
under  their  distresses,  could  be  capable  of  enjoying  order  ; 
away  was  at  least  prepared  for  the  restoration  of  so  desirable 
an  event.  The  truce  of  the  Black  Prince  was  now  ended, 
and  he  again  entered  France  in  the  midst  of  that  calm,  which 
had  just  opened  the  eyes  of  the  nation  to  a  sense  of  those 
scenes  of  rapine  and  desolation  which  had  filled  the  whole 
kingdom  with  wretchedness. 

He  commenced  his  operations  by  ravaging  arid  pillaging 
their  country,  and  levying  contributions  upon  their  towns, 
until  desolation  itself,  compelled  him  to  conclude  a  peace  ; 
stipulate  for  the  ransom  of  John  II.  at  three  million  crowns  in 
gold  ;  renounce  all  claims  upon  Normandy,  and  the  other 
provinces,  claimed  or  owned  by  England,  in  exchange  for  the 
provinces  of  Poictou,  Xaintonge,  le  Angenois,  and  six  oth- 
ers ;  together  with  Guienne  and  Calais,  which  were  to  be- 
long to  the  crown  of  England  ;  and  France  renounced  all 
feudal  claims  of  homage,  &c.  King  John  returned  to  France  ; 
but  when  insurmountable  obstacles  obstructed  the  execution 
of  this  treaty,  he  broke  through  his  opposing  court,  repaired 
to  London  to  negociate  for  the  removal  of  difficulties,  took 
up  his  old  lodgings,  sickened  and  died,  1364. 


CHAP.  XVIII. 

Particular    remarks — affairs  of  France    and   Spain — 
•  Prince  renews  the  war  with  France — battle  of  the  champions 
— Germany  and  Italy. 

In  the  events  of  the  last  chapter,  we.  have  seen  what  could 
be  done  by  a  king  of  England,  like  Edward  III.  who  knew 
how  to  improve  to  advantage,  the  powers  which  his  crown 
derived  from  the  union  of  the  three  estates  in  his  govern- 
ment, and  wha,t  force  a  well  balanced  liberty  could  give  to 
the  energies  of  his  sword.  We  have  seen  an  example  of 
•  'ohn  II.  king  of  France,  or  rather  the  dauphin,  in  his  ab- 
&  .r,p,  could  not  do,  for  the  want  of  such  a  free  government  ; 
and  what  the  licentiousness  of  despotism,  when  transferred 
firm  the  throne  to  the  populace,  did  do.  Permit  me  to  add 
we  have  in  our  own  times  witnessed  the  second  volume  of 


AFFAIRS    OF    SPAIN.  155 

the  same  scenes,  arising  from  the  same  source,  and  upon  the 
same  theatre  of  action.     The  choice  is  left  open  to  the  world. 

Charles  V.  succeededto  the  throne  of  his  father,  at  a  peri- 
od, perhaps,  of  all  others  the  most  difficult ;  his  resources 
were  so  exhausted,  that  he  held  but  the  shadow  of  power  ; 
the  king  of  Navarre  was  yet  in  arms  ;  forty  thousand  English 
adventurers  of  the  sword,  had  taken  possession  of  the  newly 
acquired  provinces,  and  threatened  the  peace  of  the  kingdom. 

In  the  midst  of  this  pressing  state  of  things,  Peter  the  I. 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  his  father  Alphonso  XI.  king  of 
Spain,  and  was  acting  over  in  Spain,  a  tragedy,  much  like 
the  late  tragedy  in  France,  in  the  reign  of  John  II.  Count 
Trastamafa,  brother  of  Peter,  fled  into  France  for  safety  and 
succor,  and  made  application  to  the  king.  Charles  embra- 
ced the  favorable  moment  ;  met  his  request,  by  a  permission 
for  count  Henry,  to  enlist  those  formidable  knights  of  the 
sword,  who  had  formed  themselves  into  bodies,  styled  com- 
panies, or  companions.  These  readily  embraced  the  offers 
of  Henry,  entered  into  his  service  under  one  Du  Guesclin, 
and  assembled  at  Avignon  :  here  they  demanded  of  Pope 
Innocent  VI.  (who  resided  in  France  during  the  long  feuds 
of  Italy,)  absolution  from  that  bull  he  had  thundered  against 
them,  and  their  horrid  barbarities  ;  together  with  a  sum  of 
two  hundred  thousand  livres.  Innocent  hesitated  :  to  pardon 
for  money,  was  orthodox  ;  but  to  pardon,  and  pay  money, 
was  an  alarming  innovation — Du  Guesclin  added  ;  "  My  fel- 
lows, I  believe,  can  make  a  shift  to  do  without  your  absolu- 
tion ;  but  this  money  is  absolutely  necessary."  Hisholiness 
levied  this  sum  upon  the  people,  and  paid  the  demands  of 
Du  Guesclin. 

The  bandit  shrunk  from  the  act,  and  exclaimed  ;  "  It  is 
not  my  purpose  to  oppress  the  innocent  people  :  the  pope 
and  cardinals  can  spare  me  double  the  sum  from  their  own 
coffers  ;  I  therefore  insist,  that  this  money  be  restored  to  the 
owners  ;  and  if  I  hear  that  they  are  defrauded  of  it,  I  will  re- 
turn over  the  Pyrenees,  and  oblige  you  to  make  them  resti- 
tution." Innocent  obeyed,  and  paid  the  money. 

The  enterprise  in  Spain  proved  successful  ;  Peter  was 
driven  from  his  throne,  fled  into  France,  and  took  refuge  at 
the  court  of  Edward  the  black  prince,  inGuiennc.  Edward 
espoused  his  cause,  recalled  the  English  troops  under  Du 
Giiesclin,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand  men, 
entered  Sp.-nn,  met  Henry  with  an  army  of  one  hundred 


156  DLATH    OF    EDWARD    III. 

thousand  men  upon  the  banks  of  the  Ebro,  near  Najara  ;  an 
action  commenced,  Edward  was  victorious — twenty  thousand 
French  and  Spaniards  strewed  the  field  of  the  dead  ;  Du 
Guesclin  was  taken  prisoner,  and  all  Castile  submitted  to 
Edward,  who  restored  Peter  to  his  throne,  and  returned  to 
Guienne. 

This  successful  expedition  ruined  the  prince.  Peter  re- 
fused to  pay  according  to  stipulation  ;  the  debts  of  Edward 
cramped  his  affairs,  and  constrained  him  to  levy  upon  his 
subjects  ;  they  complained  to  the  king  of  France  ;  he  cited 
Edward  to  appear  at  Paris,  and  justify  his  conduct  towards 
his  vassals.  Edward  obeyed,  not  the  summons  of  Charles, 
but  of  his  own  resentment ;  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his 
army,  and  took  the  field  ;  war  commenced,  and  raged  ;  Ed- 
ward's health  declined,  and  his  affairs  declined,  until  he  feil 
a  sacrifice  to  his  disease,  and  with  his  death,  the  possessions 
of  England  soon  returned  back  to  the  crown  of  France,  ex- 
cepting Bordeaux,  Bayonne,and  Calais. 

At  this  time  the  gallantries  of  Edward  III.  had  weakene 
his  government,  and  rendered  it  necessary  to  confer  th 
crown  upon  his  son,  the  duke  of  Lancaster.  He  survive 
his  son  one  year,  and  died  in  the  sixty-fifth  year  of  his  age 
1377.  His  name  will  ever  live. 

During  these  struggles  in  France  and  Spain,  arid  the  Ion 
and  prosperous  reign  of  Edward  III.  in  England,  a  furiou 
civil  war  raged  in  Germany,  to  supply  the  succession,  afte 
the  interregnum,  which  followed  the  death  of  Henry  Vll 
Frederic,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Lewis,  duke  of  Austria,  wer 
the  competitors  in  this  controversy.  In  the  midst  of  thi 
war,  two  champions  agreed  to  select  fifteen  from  each  party 
and  decide  the  claims  of  the  competitors  by  combat.  Th 
champions  met  accordingly  near  Muldorf,  the  conflict  was  ii 
the  presence  of  both  armies,  and  the  rencounter  so'desperate 
that  every  man  fell ;  not  one  was  spared.  Both  armies  rush 
ed  to  the  combat ;  the  conflict  was  terrible  ;  Frederic  wa. 
routed,  and  retired  from  the  field  :  he  soon  recovered  the 
blow,  and  entered  Bavaria  to  take  vengeance  on  bis  rival ;  Lew 
is  appeared  with  a  powerful  army,  a  battle  was  fought  near  Vc 
r  hi  vis  ;  Frederic  was  taken  prisoner,  his  army  dispersed,  an< 
Lewis  bore  away  the  palm,  and  wore  the  imperial  crown. 

During  these  struggles  in  Germany,  Austria  had  made  onr 
great  effort  to  humble  the  Swiss  :  but  the  famous  battle  o 
Mogurd  defeated  the  Austiians,  and  established  the  libertic. 
oif  Switzerland, 


COUNCIL    OF    FRANKFORT.  157 

Lewis  V.  maintained  a  controversy  with  pope  John  XXII. 
and  marched  into  Italy,  deposed  John,  and  created  Nicholas 
V.  Upon  his  return  into  Germany,  John  was  restored,  Nich- 
olas deposed,  carried  to  Avignon  with  a  rope  about  his  neck, 
constrained  to  do  penance  for  his  temerity,  thrown  into  pri- 
son, and  died,  1330. 

During  this  controversy,  John  died,  and  Benedict  XII.  was 
raised  to  the  chair  ;  he -renewed  or  confirmed  the  bulls  of 
John.  This,  together  with  a  war  with  the  duke  of  Austria  in 
support  of  his  son,  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg,  found  em- 
ployment for  this  year.  In  the  memorable  year  1338,  the 
princes  of  the  empire,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  assembled  at 
Frankfort,  with  a  determination  to  put  a  final  close  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  popes  in  the  councils  of  Germany,  and  stop 
the  effusion  of  blood  in  these  civil  wars. 

They  established  irrevocably  the  following  constitution  : 
"  that  the  plurality  of  suffrages  of  the  electoral  college,  con- 
fers the  empire,  without  the  consent  or  the  holy  see  ;  that 
the  pope  has  no  superiority  over  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
nor  any  right  to  approve  or  reject  his  election  ;  and  that  to 
maintain  the  contrary  is  high  treason."  They  also  declared 
the  elector  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  to  be  vested  with  the  gov- 
ernment during  an  interregnum. 

During  this  time,  Benedict  XII.  died,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Clement  VI.  a  native  of  France,  where  he  then  resided. 
Clement  confirmed  all  the  bulls  of  Benedict  and  John  against 
Lewis  the  V.  ;  but  without  effect.  He  then  came  out  with 
what  he  considered  as  his  great  bull  of  terror,  which  was  to 
palsy  the  power  of  Lewis,  and  this  was  the  style  :  "  May  the 
wrath  of  God,  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  crush  him  in  this 
world  and  the  next  :  may  the  earth  open  and  swallow  him 
up  alive  ;  may  his  mercy  perish,  and  all  the  elements  be  his 
enemies  ;  may  his  children  fall  into  the  hands  of  his  adver- 
saries, even  in  the  sight  of  their  father." 

Clement  issued  a  new  bull  of  election  ;  it  failed  in  part,  but 
was  the  means  of  electing  Charles  IV.  margrave  of  Moravia, 
king  of  the  Romans,  1347. 

During  these  struggles  with  the  papacy,  Nicholas  Rienzi,  a 
private  citizen  of  Rome,  by  his  address,  was  proclaimed  tri- 
bune by  the  people,  took  possession  of  the  capitol,  and  de- 
clared all  Italy  free;  he,  like  the  Gracchi  of  old,  fell  a  sa- 
crifice to  his  termerity,  and  was  murdered  by  t!i  p-vtr 

Charles  IV.  on  his  return  to  Germany,  called  a  new  diet  at 
14 


158 


DIET    AT    NUREMBERG. 


Nuremberg,  to  fix  the  imperial  elections  more  definitely,  thau 
Was  expressed  by  the  diet  of  Frankfort.  This  diet  framed, 
and  published  the  famous  golden  bull,  which  has  quieted  the 
elections  of  the  empire  to  this  day.  The  style  of  this  bull, 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  was  put  into  operation  at  the  cor- 
onation of  Charles  IV.  are  worthy  of  notice  ;  but  such  par- 
ticulars exceed  the  limits  of  this  work.  Charles  left  the  im- 
perial crown  to  his  son  Winceslaus,  in  1378. 


CHAP.  XIX. 

Affairs  of  England  under  Richard  II.  and  Henry  IV. — Scotland 
— Germany)  and  the  States  of  Italy — council  of  Constance. 

WE  have  noticed  the  successive  steps  in  the  government  oi 
England  to  recover  her  liberties,  and  the  good  effects  they 
have  produced  :  we  may  now  notice  the  distinction  between 
liberty  and  licentiousness  ;  mark  the  contrast,  and  learn  to 
revere  that  true  system  of  government  which  is  able  to  main- 
tain and  protect  the  pure  principles  of  liberty,  by  the  true 
principles  ofjustice,  equity,  and  sound  policy. 

When  Richard  the  II.  of  England,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  Edward  III.  his  minority  was  supported  by  the  weight  of 
character  and  influence  of  his  three  uncles,  the  dukes  oi 
Lancaster,  York  and  Gloucester,  and  the  tranquillity  of  the 
throne  was  secured. 

The  continental  wars  of  Edward,  had  exhausted  his  funds, 
and  ent niled  upon  Richard,  not  only  poverty,  but  the  neces- 
sity of  devising  an  expedient  to  replenish  his  treasury.  This 
might  have  been  effected  by  a  resort  to  his  parliament,  after 
the  manner  of  Edward,  but  this  was  overlooked,  and  he  had 
recourse  to  a  direct  tax  of  three  groats  upon  the  head  of  each 
person,  male  and  female,  over  sixteen  years  of  age,  called 
the  poll  tax.  This  threw  the  nation  into  a  ferment,  raised 
the  clamour  of  inequality  and  injustice,  set  men  to  weigh 
each  other  in  tne  balance  of  equality,  then  of  liberty,  and  led 
the  vassal  to  say,  that  if  his  head  was  taxed  as  much  as  his 
lord's  he  was  as  good  as  his  lord.  The  passions  of  the  nation 
were  roused  ;  and  a  single  incident  between  a  tax-gatherer 
and  a  young  woman,  kindled  the  fire  into  a  flame  ;  and  the 
nation,  as  one  great  mob,  flew  to  arms. 


WAT  TYLER'S  MOB.  15$ 

0)ne  hundred  thousand  men  invested  London,  under  Wat 
Tyler  their  leader,  and  demanded  a  conference  with  the  king, 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  the  tower.  A  conference  was  at- 
tempted, but  the  riotous  multitude  rendered  this  impractica- 
ble ;  and  they  broke  into  London,  gave  it  up  to  pillage,  and 
murdered  all  the  gentlemen  they  could  find. 

The  king  again  attempted  a  conference,  which  was  effect- 
ed ;  and  they  demanded  abolition  of  slavery,  free  market 
towns,  and  a  fixed  rent  on  lands,  instead  of  services  by  ville- 
nage.  Those  demands  would  have  been  instantly  granted, 
but  Wat  Tyler'became  so  insolent  with  his  sword  to  the  lord 
mayor,  that  he  struck  him  to  the  ground,  where  he  was  slain. 
Great  tumults  arose,  and  the  mob  were  about  to  take  instant 
vengeance  upon  the  lord  mayor,  the  king,  and  all  his  attend- 
ants. Richard,  then  sixteen  years  of  age,  stepped  out  in 
presence  of  the  mob,  and  exclaimed,  "I  am  your  king,  and 
will  become  your  leader  ;  follow  me  into  the  field,  and  you 
shall  have  whatever  you  want."  The  mob  was  hushed,  and 
followed  the  king,  he  granted  their  demands,  dismissed  them 
peaceably,  and  they  repaired  to  their  homes. 

Thus,  we  see,  how  critical  is  the  state  of  a  nation,  when 
balancing  between  despotism  and  liberty,  how  much  the 
good  of  a  government  depends  upon  the  wisdom  of  the  prince, 
and  how  feudal  vassalage  was  abolished  in  England. 

Richard  II.  was  the  sport  of  faction  during  his  weak  reign  ; 
he  fell  into^  the  hands  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  who  was 
making  ambitious  attempts  upon  the  crown,  was  exposed  to 
the  insult  and  scorn  of  the  nation,  died,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lancaster,  under  the  title  of  Henry  IV.  1399.  Henry,  like 
all  other  usurpers,  laid  the  foundation  of  his  throne  in  blood, 
and  paved  the  way  for  a  religious  persecution  in  England. 

Wickliff,  the  first  English  reformer,  who  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  from  his  character  and  learning,  had  been  thought 
worthy  the  society  of  Edward,  when  duke  of  Lancaster,  now 
began  to  attract  attention. 

The  pure  principles  of  liberty,  which  Wickliff  drew  from 
the  gospel,  were  deemed  by  Henry,  incompatible  with  the 
dignity  of  his  crown;  he  cherished  a  bitterness  which  the 
clergy  harboured  against  Wickliff,  and  caused  a  law  to  be 
passed,  which  consigned  to  the  flames,  all  relapsed  heretics. 
This,  as  was  intended,  opened  the  way  for  the  persecutions 
of  the  faggot ;  and  William  Sauture,  a  clergyman  of  London, 
fell  the  first  victim. 


160 


BATTLE    OF    SMREWSBVRY. 


These  arbitrary  measures,  soon  involved  Henry  in  wars'. 
An  insurrection  broke  out  in  Wales,  which  gave  him  mucl 
trouble  ;  another  in  Scotland,  under  Harry  Percy,  styled  Hot- 
spur :  this  war  baffled  the  efforts  of  Henry  through  one  cai 
paign,  and  he  returned  to  England.  The  next  season  he  en- 
tered Scotland  with  about  twelve  thousand  men  ;  the  two  ar- 
mies were  equal— r-they  met  near  Shrewsbury  ;  here  com- 
menced one  of  the  most  desperate  and  bloody  actions,  foi 
the  number  of  combatants,  ever  witnessed.  Henry,  and  hi? 
son,  prince  of  Wales,  were  engaged  with  desperate  valour 
Percy,  lord  Douglas,  and  other  Scottish  chiefs*  met  the  con- 
flict with  equal  bravery.  Hotspur  fell,  and  Edward  prevail- 
ed ;  the  carnage  was  terrible,  more  than  two  thousand  gen- 
tlemen fell  in  the  conflict,  the  rebellion  was  quelled,  ant 
peace  was  restored  without  further  sacrifice,  in  1403. 

The  battle  of  Glendour  quelled  the  rebellion  in  Wales,  am 
Henry  was  left  to  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  his  crown,   1409. 
This  continued  four  years,  when  he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  distres 
sing  fits,  and  died  in  the  forty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  in  1413. 

Winceslaus,  whom  we  left  upon  the  throne  of  Germany,  wt 
soon  embroiled  in  a  quarrel  between  popes  Urban  VI.  am 
Clement  III.  who  were  contesting  their  claims  to  the  chair, 
with  all  the  violence  and  bitterness  of  Italian  wars.     The  em- 
peror assembled  a  diet  at  Nuremberg,  who  resolved  to  pro- 
tect Urban.       The  plague  which  raged  in  Bohemia,  led  th< 
emperor  to  repair  to  Aix-la-Chapelle,  where  he  remained  bu- 
ried in  debauchery,  while  the  war  of  the  popes  raged  in  Italy. 

This  war  was  heightened  by  the  broils  of  Joan,  ex-queei 
of  Naples,  (noticed  before  in  the  distresses  of  that  Island," 
who  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  rage  of  the  parties,  and  left  her  clair 
to  the  crown  of  Sicily  in  a  labyrinth  of  controversy,  1393. 

Urban  triumphed  over  Clement,  took  Rome,  and  Clement 
retired  to  France.      Urban  next  seized  upon  the  crown 
Naples,  and  usurped  the  throne. 

At  this  time,  Margaret,  queen  of  Denmark,  seized  on  th( 
kingdom  of  Sweden,  to  relieve  the  Swedes  from  the  tyranny 
of  king  Albert';  annexed  Sweden  to  Denmark,  and  acquire< 
the  appellation  of  the  Semiramis  of  the  north,  1388.     Durir 
lihese  struggles,  Germany  fell  into  disorder  under  the  reign 
the  corrupt  Winceslaus,  who  remained  at  Aix-la-Chapell( 
where  he  caused  his  cook  to  be  roasted,  because  he  did  n< 
please  him,  and  was  deposed  by  the  diet  ofLaenstein,  am 
Frederic,  duke  of  Brunswick,  raised  to  the  throne.  Frederic 


OOVNCIL    OF    CONSTANCE.  161 

was  murdered,  and  Robert,  count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  was 
elected  emperor,  1399. 

Robert  attempted  to  quiet  the  wars  of  Italy  by  force  ;  but 
the  campaign  was  unsuccessful,  and  the  duke  of  Milan  acquir- 
ed great  power  in  Italy.  At  this  time  John  Huss  appeared 
in  Bohemia,  embraced  the  principles  of  Wickliff,  alarmed 
the  pope,  and  kindled  a  fire  in  the  church.  Gregory  XII. 
excommunicated  Huss,  he  appealed  to  the  Holy  Trinity,  and 
claimed  the  privilege  of  making  his  defence  before  the  uni- 
versity of  Prague.  The  church  was  now  thrown  into  the 
greatest  confusion. 

Two  popes  were  at  once  in  power.  Gregory  XII.  assem- 
bled a  council  at  Aquilea,  and  invited  several  princes  :  Ben- 
edict XIII.  held  a  council  in  Catalonia  :  the  cardinals  convok- 
ed a  third  at  Pisa,  and  the  emperor  assembled  a  diet  at  Frank- 
fort for  the  same  purpose,  and  all  was  division  and  discord. 

To  lay  the  storm,  the  cardinals  deposed  both  the  popes, 
and  raised  Alexander  V.  to  the  chair  ;  this  added  fuel  to  the 
fire,  and  the  schism  raged  afresh.  Robert,  the  emperor,  died 
during  this  struggle,  and  Sigismund  was  raised  to  the  imperi- 
al throne,  1411. 

Sigismund  convoked  a  general  council  at  Constance,  un- 
der the  sanction  of  John  XXII.  who  had  succeeded  pope 
Alexander  V.  This  was  the  most  numerous,  splendid,  cor- 
rupt council,  ever  known  in  Europe. 

The  first  resolve  of  the  fathers  was,  that  the  three  popes 
should  all  resign  the  chair  ;  John,  who  presided,  at  once  com- 
plied with  this,  (provided  that  the  others  should  consent,) 
amidst  the  acclamations  of  joy  in  the  council  ;  but  this  was 
of  short  duration,  pope  John  repented,  left  the  council,  de- 
clared it  dissolved  by  his  absence,  and  fled  in  disguise,  141.7 


CHAP.  XX. 

Affairs  of  Germany — of  England — of  France. 

GOD,  in  his  allwise  providence,  suffered  the  papal  church 
to  make  a  full  display  of  all  her  iniquities  in  the  corruptions 
which  produced  the  famous  council  of  Constance,  to  open 
the  way  for  the  great  events  he  was  about  to  unfold  for  the 
good  of  bis  church.  The  council,  after  the  departure  of 
14* 


162  HOUSE    OF    AUSTRIA. 


jU\d 


pope  John,  proceeded  to  determine  that  no  other  pope  should 
be  chosen  without  the  consent  of  the  council,  and  to  exclude 
John,  Gregory,  and  Benedict  from  the  chair. 

John  and  Gregory  yielded,  and  resigned  ;  but  Benedict 
stood  out,  and  the  emperor  Sigismund  made  a  special  jour- 
ney into  Spain,  attended  by  twelve  deputies  from  the  coun- 
cil to  obtain  the  influence  of  Ferdinand,  king  of  Arragon,  to 
persuade  Benedict  to  resign  :  the  pope  took  refuge  in  the 
castle  of  Paniscola,  and  defeated  the  embassy. 

Ferdinand  agreed  with  tjie  emperor,  by  his  deputies,  that 
ihe  council  should  cite  Benedict  to  appear  at  Constance,  and 
upon  his  refusal,  proceed  to  choose  another  pope.  During 
the  absence  of  the  emperor,  the  council  proceeded  to  try 
Jerdme  of  Prague,  an  associate  with  John  Hussin  principles, 
condemned,  and  burnt  him  at  the  stake  !  He  suffered  with 
great  firmness. 

Upon  the  return  of  the  emperor,  Benedict  was  deposed, 
Martin  V.  elected,  arid  crowned  with  great  pomp.  The  em- 
peror, and  the  elector  of  Brandenburg,  led  a  most  magnifi- 
cent white  horse,  on  which  sat  the  pope,  Martin  V.  ;  kings, 
princes,  with  their  ambassadors,  and  the  fathers  of  the  coun- 
cil, graced  the  procession  to  the  cathedral,  where  the  triple 
crown  was  placed  upon  the  head  of  his  holiness  ;  the  same 
solemnity  graced  his  return. 

The  Hussites  gave  loose  to  their  enthusiasm  against  the 
Opposition  of  the  church,  which  had  excluded  them   from 
their  communion  :   they  raised  a  mob,  entered  the  town- 
house,   and  murdered  all  the  magistrates  who  had  opposed 
them.     In  the  midst  of  these  riots,  Winceslaus  died,  and  was 
succeeded  in  Bohemia,  by  Sigismund  the  emperor.     This  re- 
ligious war  raged  with  great  fury  in  Bohemia  to  the  year  \  436, 
when  Sigismund  laid  the  storm  by  a  general  amnesty,  granted 
?  he  privileges  of  the  sacrament,  and  they  returned  to 
duty  in  triumph. 

-mund  led  these  subjects  against  the  Turks  in  the  year 
where  he  died,  and  left  the  crown  of  Bohemia  and 
Hungary  to  Albtert,  duke  of  Austria,  his  son  in  law  :  this  es- 
tablished the  house  of  Austria  upon  the  imperial  throne,  1438. 
This  union  formed  a  most  important  epoch  in  the  history  of 
Europe. 

During  these  feuds  in  Germany  and  Italy,  Charles  VI.  had 
taken  possession  of  his  throne  of  France,  when  he  soon  fell 
into  a  state  of  frenzy,  which  attended  him  occasionally,  and 


BATTLE    OF    AGINCOURT.  163 

distracted  his  reign.  Nothing  worthy  of  notice  appeared  in 
France  ;  the  kingdom  was  given  up  to  anarchy,  licentious- 
ness, and  dissipation,  in  which  the  court  took  the  lead.  The 
court  of  Henry  IV.  of  England,  kept  pace  with  the  court  of 
-France,  until  he  died,  and  left  the  crown  to  his  son,  Henry 
V.  1413. 

The  disciples  of  Wickliff  had  now  become  numerous  in 
England,  under  the  denomination  of  Lollards,  and  were  sup- 
ported by  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  and  fc>rd  Cobham,  noblemen  of 
distinction.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  alarmed  for  the 
safety  of  the  church,  obtained  the  king's  permission  to  sup- 
press the  sect  of  the  Lollards,  by  an  attack  upon  lord  Cobham. 
Henry  complied  ;  the  attack  commenced,  and  the  persecu- 
tion raged  until  Cobham  was  executed,  and  the  Lollards  sup- 
pressed. Henry  then  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  the  dis- 
tracted state  of  France,  assembled  an  army  of  thirty-six  thou- 
sand men,  and  landed  at  Harfleurin  France,  dismissed  his 
transports,  and  trusted  to  the  valour  of  his  sword. 

Henry  was  met  by  a  powerful  French  army  of  forty  thou- 
sand men,  which  checked  his  progress  and  compelled  him  to 
retire  towards  Calais.  In  this  retreat,  he  had  occasion  to 
pass  the  river  Somme,  under  circumstances  very  similar  to 
the  passage  of  Edward  III.  The  French,  here,  took  post  in 
his  rear,  upon  the  plains  of  Agincourt,  and  checked  his  move- 
ments :  a  battle  was  the  only  alternative.  Henry  °aw  his 
army,  reduced  to  half  their  numbers,  by  fatigues,  skirmishing, 
sickness  and  hunger,  now  in  the  presence  of  a  French  army, 
of  four  times  their  numbers,  headed  by  the  dauphin,  and  the 
best  blood  of  the  nation,  full  fed,  and  in  high  spirits.  Henry 
consoled  himself  with  the  battles  of  Cressy  and  Poictiers,  (so 
famous  in  English  history,)  took  the  same  wise  measures  in 
posting  his  army,  and  awaited  the  attack.  The  French,  im- 
patient for  the  victory  ^  advanced  to  the  attack  with  their  usual 
impetuosity  ;  the  English  received  the  shock  with  firmness, 
and  charged  the  French  in  their  turn  ;  their  ranks  were  brok- 
en, thrown  into  disorder,  and  put  to  flight.  Henry  rushed 
out  of  his  camp  at  the  head  of  his  guards,  and  took  vengeance 
on  the  fugitives,  with  their  battle-axes  :  a  terrible  slaughter 
ensued  ;  the  plain  of  Agincourt  was  covered  with  the  wound- 
ed, the  dead,  and  the  dying.  The  loss  was  very  inconsider- 
able to  Henry,  but  ruinous  to  France.  Henry  returned  to 
England  to  recruit  his  army,  and  France  was  torn  and  distract- 
ed with  civil  war. 

The  Duke  of  Burgundy  attempted  to  seize  on  the  crown, 


1G4 


MARRIAGE  ©F  HENRY  AND  CATHERINE. 


and  through  the  extreme  corruption  of  the  French  court, 
tually  engaged  the  queen  mother,  whilst  regent  to  her  sor 
the  dauphin,  to  favor  his   plans  and  promote  his  interest 
Charles  VI.  at  this  time  in  a  st;>te  of  frvnzy,  was  secured,  th< 
duke  of  Burgundy   entered  France  with  a  powerful  arm 
seized  the  dauphin,  and  commenced  a  general  butchery 
his  party  and  friends,  burst  open  the  prisons,  and  dragged  foil 
to  indiscriminate  slaughter,  all  the  noblemen  he  could  find. 

In  the  midst  of  these^  scenes,    Henry   returned,  and  th( 
pope's  legate,  at  a  conference,  attempted  to  persuade  him 
withdraw,  and  leave  the  French  to  their  fate,  or  conclude 
peace.     Henry  urged  his  claims  to  the  crown,  and  pleitd  the 
good  he  was  about  to  do,  in  giving  law  to  this  distracted  n; 
tion. 

At  this  time  the  duke  of  Burgundy  was  slain,  and  the  queer 
settled  a  treaty  with  the  new  duke — agreed  that  Henry 
should  marry  the  princess   Catherine,  possess  the  throne 
France  as  heir  apparent,  take  the  government  as  regent  dui 
ing  the  life  of  the  king,  Charles  VI.  and  support  the  crcwj 
by  his  arms. 

Henry    married    Catherine    the    next    day — establishe< 
Charles,  his  father,  at  Paris,  settled  the  affairs  of  the  kim 
dom,  lived  to  see  an  heir  to  the  throne  of  France  by  his  queei 
sickened  at  Paris,  sent  for  his  principal  confidents  in  Englanc 
arranged  his  affairs,  and  died,  leaving  the  regency  of  Franc< 
to  his"  brother,  the  duke  of  Bedford,    1422.     Charles  VI, 
the  old  king  died  soon,  and  the  dauphin  took  the  throne 
Charles  VII.  and  was  crowned  at  Poictiers. 

Catherine,  the  widow  of  Henry  V.  married  Sir  Owen  Tu- 
dor, a  gentleman  descended  from  the  ancient  princes  of  Wales 
and  bore  him  two  sons,  who  became  the  earls  of  Richmom 
and  Pembroke  :  and  who  will  claim  our  notice  hereafter. 

The  duke  of  Bedford  exerted  himselfto  support  the  Frencl 
crown    for  the  infant  heir,   Henry  VI.   and    the    dauphin, 
Charles  VII.  made  all  possible  efforts  to  recover  his  claims. 
Here  the  parties  were  at  issue.     James  I.  was  at  this  til 
in  prison  in  England,  and  the  Scots  shewed  their  resentmei 
by  supporting  with   their  arms  the  cause    of  the   daupLii 
Charles  VII.     To  obviate  this,  the  English,  agreeable  to  th< 
advice  of  the  regent,  the  duke  of  Bedford,  entered  into  alli- 
ance with  James,  and  set  him  at   liberty  ;  but  he  was  sooi 
murdered  by  his  kinsman,  the  earl  of  Athol,  1437. 

The  duke  regent  overran  France,  and  gained  the  battle 


MA1»    OF    ORLEANS.  165 

Vernuil,  which  appeared  to  be  ruinous  to  the  cause  of 
Charles  VII.  but  by  a  wonderful  train  of  events,  proved  ruin- 
ous to  the  cause  of  the  regent,  and  occasioned  the  loss  of  all 
the  English  possessions  on  the  continent.  The  city  of  Or- 
leans had  now  become  the  key  of  the  contending  parties, 
and  covered  their  divided  provinces.  Charles  held  posses- 
sion, and  the  duke  regent  resolved  to  dispossess  him  ;  all 
Europe  considered  the  fate  of  the  kingdom  to  depend  on  the 
siege  of  Orleans  ;  the  contending  parties  exerted  all  their 
valor  and  prowess  upon  both  sides  ;  Charles  VII.  began  to 
despair,  and  actually  made  arrangements  to  withdraw  into 
Languedoc  and  Dauphiny,  for  the  security  of  his  army. 

The  kind  remonstrance  of  his  queen  and  other  favourites 
at  court,  diverted  Charles  from  his  purpose,  and  he  resolved 
to  defend  the  city.  At  this  critical  moment,  a  very  singular 
adventure  arrested  the  attention  of  Europe  :  Joan  De  Arc,  a 
country  girl  of  the  village  of  Domrimi,  on  the  borders  of 
Lorrain,  from  a  low  and  obscure  station,  was  raised  up  as  the 
deliverer  of  the  city  of  Orleans. 

Joan  announced  that  by  immediate  communications  from 
heaven,  she  had  received  a  special  commission  to  go,  and  re- 
lieve the  city.  She  went  to  the  governor  of  the  city  of  Vau- 
couleurs,  and  obtained  his  permission  to  repair  to  the  court 
of  Charles  VII.  atChinon  ;  there  she  w-\s  favourably  receiv- 
ed, offered  to  execute  the  commission  of  heaven,  and  deliver 
the  city  :  and  demanded  a  particular  sword  -in  the  church  of 
St.  Catherine  Fierbois. 

After  serious  and  mature  deliberation,  her  request  was 
granted  and  the  sword  delivered.  Joan,  armed  cap-a-pie, 
and  mounted  on  horseback,  took  her  departure  at  the  head  of 
a  numerous  retinue,  and  entered  the  city  of  Orleans,  arrayed 
in  her  armour,  under  the  display  of  her  consecrated  standard, 
and  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  garrison  and  citizens. 

The  scene  was  opened  :  Joan  had  promised  to  raise  the 
siege  ofOrleans,  and  cause  Charles  to  be  crowned  at  Rheims  : 
the  one  was  invested,  but  the  other  lay  in  a  remote  p:irt.  of 
the  kingdom,  guarded  by  detachments  of  English  troops,  in 
all  the  passes  that  led  to  it. 

A  general  anxiety  began  to  shew  itself  in  the  English  ^mv, 
and  heaviness  had  seized   their  spirits.     Joan  joined 
Dunois  the  commander  of  Orleans,  and  by  sever  .1  de  - 
and  successful  sallies,  drove  the  English  from  their  intrench- 
ments,  and  actually  obliged  them  to  raise  the  siege. 


168  BEATH    OF    JOAN    JDE    ARC. 

She  then  pressed  Charles  to  accompany  her  immediately 
to  Rheims,  which  he  did,  at  the  head  of  12,000  men.  ""Their 
march  was  rapid  and  (fcasy  ;  Rheims  opened  her  gates,  and 
Joan  and  Charles  entered  in  triumph.  Charles  VII.  was 
crowned,  and  anointed  with  that  holy  oil  which  the  pigeon 
was  said  to  have  brought  from  heaven  to  Clovis  ;  and  all 
France  was  ready  to  submit  to  his  authority. 

This  simple  story  needs  no  comment — we  will  pursue  the 
facts  in  their  consequences. 

To  counterbalance  this,  the  duke  recent  sentfor  the  young 
king  from  England,  Henry  VI.  and  had  him  crowned,  and 
conducted  all  his  movements  with  the  caution  of  a  Fabius,  to 
elude  the  attack  of  Charles. 

Joan,  at  the  coronation  of  Charles  at  Rheims,  declared  her 
commission  closed,  and  demanded  permission  to  retire,  but 
was  overpersuaded  to  attempt  the  defence  of  the  town  of 
Compeign,  then  besieged  by  the  duke.  Here  she  attempted 
the  same  sallies  as  at  Orleans,  was  taken  prisoner,  condemn- 
ed by  an  ecclesiastical  court  as  a,witch  and  a  sorceress,  arid 
committed  to  the  flames. 

Thus  perished  the  heroine  of  Orleans,  who  deserved  a 
better  fate,  in  1431.  The  duke  regent  died  soon  after — fac- 
tions sprang  up  in  England,  when  Henry  took  the  throne  ; 
Charles  recovered  all  the  English  possessions  in  France,  ex- 
cept Calais  ;  the  storm  of  war  hushed  into  a  calm,  whilst  the 
affairs  of  England  took  up  the  attention  of  Henry,  and  the 
parties  withdrew  from  the  contest  without  even  a  truce, 
1453.  France  continued  to  recover  her  order,  and  England 
continued  to  decline. 

We  left  Albert  Duke  of  Austria  upon  the  imperial  throne, 
where  he  attempted  an  expedition  against  the  Turks,  but  fell 
a  prey  to  the  dysentery  1439,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  broth- 
er Frederic  III.  duke  of  Austria  ;  Albert's  infant  son  Ladis- 
laus  inherited  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Frederic  III.  A  grand  council  was  now  assembled 
at  Basil  by  order  of  the  council  of  Constance,  "  to  reform 
the  church  universal,  both  in  its  head  and  members."  This 
council  had  raised  to  the  chair  Felix  V.  in  opposition  to  Eu- 
genius  IV.  who  opposed  the  meeting  of  the  council. 

Frederic  III.  repaired  to  this  council,  after  having  enjoyed 
an  interview  with  their  pope  Felix,  who  he  endeavoured  to 
persuade  to  resign  the  chair  to  Eusenius,  and  restore  peace 
to  the  church  ;  Felix  resigned,  Eugenius  died,  Nicholas  V. 
was  raised  to  the  chair,  and  the  schism  was  healed. 


CAPTURE    OF    CONSTANTINOPLE.  167 

The  healing  of  this  religious  faction  made  Frederic  very 
popular, and  opened  anew  scene.  I  he  factions  of  Germany 
had  for  a  long  time  left  the  states  of  Italy  a  prey  to  their  in- 
trigues and  civil  wars,  and  the  emperor  now  entered  upon  a 
tour  of  Italy,  to  heal  the  contentions,  to  meet  Eleonora,  sister 
to  the  king  of  Portugal,  to  whom  he  was  engaged  in  mar- 
riage, and  to  receive  the  Roman  crown. 

All  the  cities  of  Italy  vied  with  each  other  in  testifying 
their  respect  for  the  emperor  ;  ambassadors  and  deputa- 
tions, from  all  the  principal  cities,  met  him  at  the  foot  of  the 
Alps,  courted  his  attention,  and  graced  his  train. 

Venice,  Milan,  Florence,  and  Bologna,  received  the  empe- 
ror with  great  magnificence,  and  Sienna  witnessed  the  first 
interview  with  the  princess  Eleonora,  where  he  gave  audi- 
ence to  the  legates  of  the  Pope.*  The  emperor  had  now 
taken  the  first  step  to  enter  Rome,  he  next  approached  the 
city  by  the  way  of  Viterbo,  (where  he  was  insulted  by  the 
populace  and  his  life  endangered)  and  pitched  his  tent  under 
the  walls  of  Rome,  according  to  custom,  and  passed  the  night. 
The  next  morning  Frederic  entered  Rome,  attended  by  the 
whole  college  of  cardinals,  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the 
people,  and  was  crowned  king  of  Lombardy  ;  on  the  third 
day  his  marriage  with  the  princess  Eleonora  was  consumma- 
ted, the  concordat  of  the  German  Empire  ratified  with  the 
pope,  and  the  emperor  returned  to  Germany,  1452. 

At  this  time  the  Turks  entered  Constantinople  in  triumph, 
overthrew  the  list  vestige  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  put  an 
end  to  the  legs  of  iron  in  the  great  image  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

Thus  fur  we  have  traced  the  progress  of  man  through  all 
the  mazes  of  revolution,  in  the  rise  arid  fall  of  the  four  great 

*  Here  Frederic  complied  with  the  usages  of  Emperors  before  he 
entered  Rome,  and  took  the  following  oath  :  "  I  Frederic  king  of  the 
Roman?,  promise  and  swear  by  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  by 
the  wood  of  the  vivifying  cross,  and  bv  these  rel;cs  of  saints,  that  if  by 
the  permission  of  the*Lord  I  shall  come  to  Rome,  I  will  exalt  the  holy 
Roman  church  and  his  holiness  who  nreside*  over  it  to  the  utmost  in 
my  power.  Neither  shall  he  lose  life,  l;rpb,  or hono-  by  my  counsel, 
consent,  or  exhortation  Nor  will  I,  in  ihe  city  of  Rome,  make  any 
law  or  decree  touching  those  tbi-igs  tl;ar  be!o:i.<;  'o  his  holiness,  or  the 
Romans,  without  the  advice  of  our  most  holy  Lord  Nicholas.  Whate- 
ver part  of  St.  PMe:  >  |r>tr'incviy  shall  fall  into  our  hands,  we  will  re- 
store it  to  his  holiness  ;  and  he  to  whom  we  shall  commit  the  admin- 
istration of  our  kingdom  of  Italy,  shall  swear  to  assist  his  holiness  in 
defending  S*.  Peter's  patrimony  to  the  utmost  of  his  power.  So  help 
ipe  God  and  his  holy  evangelists." 


168 


MURDER  OF  THE  DUKE  OF  GLOUCESTER. 


empires  of  the  earth,  distinguished  also  by  the  four  beasts  ii 
the  vision  of  the  prophet  Daniel  ;  of  whom  it  was  said, 
rise,  devour  much  flesh."     We  have  also  traced  the  revolt 
tions  which  have  distressed  the  world  under  the  reign  of  tht 
little  horn,  which  grew  out  of  the  horns  of  the  fourth  heasl 
and  seen  the  plains  of  ancient  Greece,  formerly  so  renow: 
ed  in  the  Persian  and  Roman  wars,  become  the  theatre 
Christian  and  mahometan  conflict. 


CHAP.  XXL 

Recapitulation — civil  wars  in  England — of  France — & 
Flanders. 

THE  feet  of  the  Roman  empire  are  now  distinctly  forme< 
as  in  the  great  image  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  where  the  iron  i- 
mixed  with  clay.  The  beast  and  the  false  prophet  are  no) 
rirmly  seated  in  the  two  great  capitals,  exercising  universt 
sovereignty.  The  kingdoms  of  the  west  under  the  dominii 
of  the  little  horn,  will  continue  to  claim  our  attention. 

We  have  noticed  the  struggles  in  France,  during  the  mi 
nority  of  Henry  VI.  underthe  regency  of  his  uncle,  the  duk< 
of  Bedford,  and  the  ruin  of  the  affairs  of  England  which  fol 
lowed-  the  death  of  the  duke  regent.  The  character  ai 
reign  of  Henry  VI.  in  England  now  claim  our  attention. 

The  weak  reign  of  Henry,  opened  the  way  for  Richai 
duke  of  York,  to  setup  his  claim  to  the  crown,  which. h< 
had  derived  from  his  mother  Phiilippa,  only  daughter  of  th( 
duke  of  Clarence,  second  son  of  Edward  III.  ;  and  wh 
claimed  precedence  of  the  title  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  wh< 
w.is  third  son  of  Edward. 

The  duke  of  York  had  high  claims,  was  valiant,  very  rid 
allied  by  marriage  to  the  best  blood  of  the  nation,  and  gen( 
rally  beloved. 

The  queen  mother,  assisted  by  the  earl  of  Suffolk,  still  con- 
tinued the  regency  in  England,  where  they  \vere  not  onb 
unpopular,  but  accused  as  the  secret  cause  of  all  the  losses  ii 
France  ;  and  as  Margaret  was  a  French  woman,  they  were 
even  accused  of  treachery  ;  the  murder  of  the  duke  ofGloi 
cester,  which  was  also  imputed  to  them,  confirmed  all  suspi- 
cions, and  rendered  them  odious  to  the  nation. 


'IVIL    WAR    IN    ENGLAND.  169 

the  duke  of  York  knew  how  to  avail  himself  of  this  state 
of  things  ;  he  proceeded  to  accuse  Suffolk  in  parliament,  had 
him  banished  for  five  years,  and  caused  him  to  be  murdered 
on  his  passage  to  France. 

The  duke  of  Somerset  succeeded  in  the  administration, 
and  in  the  esteem  of  the  queen  ;  this  transferred  the  public 
odium  to  him  ;  and  the  parliament  approached  the  throne 
with  a  petition  that  the  duke  of  Somerset  might  be  excluded 
from  the  councils  of  the  nation.  S.omerset  was  arrested, 
sent  to  the  tower,  and  the  duke  of  York  appointed  lieutenant 
of  the  kingdom,  with  all  the  powers  of  regent. 

Henry  VI.  recovering  from  the  depressed  state  of  his  health 
and  spirits,  attempted  to  check  the  overbearing  power  of 
Richard  by  force.  The  duke  was  prepared,  and  a  battle 
was  fought  ;  Richard  was  victorious,  the  king  was  taken,  his 
army  dispersed,  and  a  general  accommodation  took  place  be- 
tween the  parties,  which  was  sealed  in  the  public  view,  by 
a  mutual  procession,  and  te  deum,  in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul, 
1453. 

The  trifling  incident  of  a  quarrel  between  two  servants  of 
the  contending  parties,  again  threw  the  nation  into  a  civil 
war,  and  caused  the  battle  of  Blow-heath,  where  again  Rich- 
ard was  successful.  This  increased  the  violence  of  the  par- 
ties, and  the  jealousy  of  the  nation  towards  Richard  ;  the 
treachery  of  one  of  his  principal  generals,  who  deserted  to  the 
king,  obliged  Richard  to  flee  to  Ireland,  and  abandon  his  cause. 

In  this  critical  state  of  affairs,  the  earl  of  Warwick  appear- 
ed in  Kent,  assembled  an  army  by  the  influence  of  his  popu- 
lar talents,  marched  to  London,  from  thence  amidst  the  tri- 
umph of  popular  applause,  he  advanced  to  meet  the  king. 
The  two  armies  met  at  Northampton,  an  action  was  fought, 
Warwick  was  victorious,  the  king  was  taken,  and  carried  in 
triumph  to  London. 

Richard  returned  to  England,  approached  parliament  with 
great  dignity,  modesty  and  firmness,  plead  his  title  to  the 
crown,  and  retired.  The  house  of  peers  with  the  advice  of 
the  commons,  ratified  the  claims  of  Richard,  made  him  re- 
gent during  the  life  of  Henry,  and  upon  his  death,  secured 
the  throne,  as  the  true  and  lawful  heir. 

Margaret  the  queen  had  fled  during  these  struggles,   into 
Scotland,  where  she  raised  a  powerful  army  of  twenty  thou 
sand  men,  and 'entered  England  to  dispute  the  prize. 

Richard  advanced  to  meet  the  queen  ;  a  battle  was  fought 
15 


170  CIVIL  WAR  IN  ENGLAND; 


near  Wakefield,  Richard  was  slain,  and  his  second  son  earl 
Rutland,  taken  and  murdered  :  the  earl  of  Salisbury   shared 
the  same  fate,  and  opened  the  way  for  a  war  of  extermination. 

Margaret  marched  towards  London  ;  the  earl  of  Warwick 
met  her  at  St.  Albans,  a  battle  ensued,  Warwick  was  beaten, 
and  fled  to  London,  and  Margaret  recovered  her  captive  king. 

1  his  victory  was  checked  by  the  approach  of  young  Ed- 
ward (then  twenty  years  of  age)  son  of  the  late  duke  of  York, 
with  a  strong  force,  elated  with  their  late  successes.  The 
queen  retired  to  avoid  an  acCion  ;  Edward  entered  London  in 
triumph,  set  up  his  claim  to  the  crown  in  right  of  his  father, 
was  owned  and  received  by  the  acclamations  of  the  people, 
confirmed  by  the  house  of  lords,  and  crowned  king,  as  Ed- 
ward IV. 

Here  opened  the  exterminating  scene  of  carnage  and  des- 
truction in  the  civil  war  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster, 
(or  war  of  the  white  and  red  rose.)  The  two  armies  were 
now  augmented  to  about  forty  thousand  men  :  they  met  near 
Towton,  an  action  commenced,  both  parties  drew  the  sword 
and  rushed  to  close  combat,  the  conflict  was  obstinate,  the 
carnage  was  great,  the  Lancastrians  fled,  Edward  pursued, 
no  quarter  was  the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  butchery  was 
awful  :  thirty-six  thousand  fell  on  the  field,  and  in  the  flight. 
The  action  was  decisive,  and  Margaret  and  Henry  fled  to 
Scotland  for  safety  and  succor. 

The  divided  state  of  Scotland,  under  the  reign  of  James 
III.  (who  had  succeeded  James  II.)  was  in  no  situation  to  heal 
her  own  factions  ;  yet  she  ventured  to  proffer  assistance  to 
Margaret,  upon  the  condition  that  she  should  deliver  up  the 
conquered  fortress  of  Berwick,  and  contract  her  son  in  mar- 
riage with  a  sister  of  James  III.  This  being  settled,  Margaret 
assembled  an  army  of  English,  Scots,  and  French,  and  advan- 
ced into  England,  1464. 

Lord  Montecute  met  her  at  Hexham,  attacked,  routed, 
and  destroyed  her  army,  either  in  the  field  or  on  the  scaffold. 
Margaret  and  her  son  fled  into  a  deep  forest,  where  she  was 
robbed  by  one  set  of  banditti,  and  protected,  with  her  son,  by 
another,  until  she  found  her  way  into  France.  Henry  was 
discovered,  after  one  whole  year's  concealment,  carried  to 
London  and  committed  to  the  tower  ;  and  the  tranquillity  of 
the  nation  was  restored. 

Edward  sent  the  earl  of  Warwick  into  France,  to  negotiate 
a  treaty  of  marriage  with  the  sister  of  the  queen  of  France^. 


of. 


OIVIL    WAR    IN    ENGLAND.  171 

and  in  his  absence  was  smitten  with  the  charms  of  lady  Eli- 
zabeth Gray,  (whose  husband  fell  in  the  battle  of  St.  Albans, 
and  whose  estate  had  been  confiscated  by  Richard  ;)  he  offer- 
ed her  his  hand,  and  the  half  of  his  crown  :  was  accepted, 
and  the  marriage  consummated  without  the  privity  of  War- 
wick. This  raised  his  irreconcilable  revenge  :  he  returned 
to  England,  put  himself  aj;  the  head  of  the  Lancastrians,  and 
took  the  field.  Edward,  deserted  by  his  friends,  felt  himself 
unsafe  at  the  head  of  his  army,  and  fled  into  Holland  ;  Henry 
VI.  was  once  more  restored  to  the  throne,  and  the  parlia- 
ment declared  Edward  IV.  an  usurper,  in  1470. 

The  factions  in  England  opened  the  way  for  Edward  to  re- 
turn the  next  year.  He  entered  London  in  triumph,  after 
having  routed  the  army  of  Warwick,  and  seen  him  and  his 
brother  the  marquis  of  Montague,  both  dead  before  him,  and 
his  army  given  up  to  the  exterminating  cry  of  no  quarter. 

Margaret,  with  her  young  son,  eighteen  years  of  age,  lan- 
ded from  France,  on  the  fatal  day,  and  took  shelter  in  the 
abbey  of  Beauiieu,  where  she  assembled  an  army  by  the  as- 
sistance of  her  friends,  took  the  field,  and  met  Edward  at 
Tewksbury.  An  action  ensued  ;  Margaret  was  routed,  her 
army  cut  to  pieces  and  destroyed,  she  and  her  son  were  taken 
prisoners,  her  son  was  murdered,  Margaret  thrown  into  the 
tower,  and  Edward  again  restored  to  the  throne. 

Having  exterminated  all  his  rivals,  Edward  assembled  an 
army  to  divert  and  unite  the  nation  ;  embarked  for  France, 
and  alarmed  Lewis  XI.  into  an  honourable  treaty  and  return- 
ed to  England,  with  seventy-five  thousand  crowns,  and  a  stip- 
ulation for  fifty  thousand  more  annually  for  life,  fifty  thou- 
sand for  the  ransom  of  Queen  Margaret,  who  retired  to  France, 
and  lived  and  died  in  peace. 

Factions  were  generally  laid  now  in  England,  and  Edward, 
after  causing  the  restless  spirit  of  the  duke  of  Clarence  to  be 
appeased  in  a  butt  of  malmsey  wine,  enjoyed  a  tranquil  throne, 
and  died  in  the  forty  second  year  of  his  age,  1483. 

Edward  V.  then  thirteen  years  of  age,  succeeded  his  fath- 
er, under  the  regency  of  his  uncle  Richard,  duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, who  was  chosen  protector,  and  who  fixed  his  eye  upon 
the  crown. 

Between  Richard  and  the  throne  stood  the  sons  of  Edward 
IV.  and  two  of  the  duke  of  Clarence,  with  their  powerful 
friends.  The  latter  were  dispatched  in  bloody  succession, 
whilst  the  young  princes  were  snug  in  the  tower  ;  Richard 
swam  in  blood  to  the  throne  through  the  acclamations  of  the 


172  H«USE  OF    TUDQR. 

mob,  sealed  his  power  by  the  murder  of  the  princes  in  the 
tower,  and  reigned,  the  scourge  and  terror  of  the  nation. 

Catherine  of  France,  relict  of  Henry  V.  had  married  sir 
Owen  Tudor  (as  was  noticed)  and  left  Henry  earl  of  Rich- 
mond, who  was  descended  from  John  duke  of  Lancaster,  son 
of  Edward  III.  by  the  side  of  the  mother,  and  the  only  branch 
of  the  contending  family  of  Lancaster  ;  the  enemies  of  Rich- 
ard entered  into  secret  negociations  to  restore  the  throne  to 
the  true  line,  through  Henry,  under  the  management  of  the 
«luke  of  Buckingham. 

Richard,  in  order  to  defeat  these  plans,  proposed  to  marry 
the  princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  and  sister  oi 
the  murdered  princes,  and  actually  obtained  the  consent  01 
the  queen  mother  ;  when  Henry  landed  from  France  with 
six  thousand  men,  and  erected  his  standard  in  Wales.  The 
Welch  rallied  round  the  standard  of  a  descendant  of  their  an- 
©ient  kings,  and  at  their  head  Henry  advanced  into  England 
Richard  was  prepared  ;  the  two  armies  met  at  Bosworth,  a 
battle  was  fought,  the  conflict  was  obstinate,  Henry  was  tri- 
umphant, Richard  fell,  and  the  justice  of  the  sword  tookven 
geance  on  this  monster  of  cruelty,  tyranny,  and  blood. 

Henry  was  at  once  crowned  king  by  his  army  (with  the 
crown  Richard  wore  in  the  action,)  and  hailed  as  the  deliver 
er  of  the  nation  ;  his  title  was  acknowledged  by  parliament,  he 
was  next  married  to  the  princess  Elizabeth,  and  commencec 
the  dynasty  of  the  house  of  Tudor,  under  the  title  of  Henry 
VII. 

During  these  struggles  in  England,  Charles  VII.  king  o 
France,  organized  and  established  his  government,  securec 
the  possessions  acquired  from  the  English,  established  a  reg- 
ular army,  raised  a  revenue  for  their  regular  pay,  and  es- 
tablished a  regular  conscription  throughout  France,  of  one 
archer  from  each  village,  who  was  exempt  from  tax.  v-This 
laid  the  foundation  in  France  for  the  title  of  gentlemen,  both 
in  name  and  in  arms. 

In  the  midst  of  these  wise  measures,  Lewis  XI.  rebellec 
against  his  father,  caused  his  death,  and  usurped  his  throne 
1461.  This  produced  such  changes  as  opened  a  civil  war 
his  disaffected  nobles  flew  to  arms,  and  both  parties  took  the 
field  ;  they  fought,  but  without  decision,  and  Lewis  gainec 
by  negociation  what  he  could  not  obtain  by  his  sword,  ant 
settled  the  peace  of  his  crown,  1465. 

The  rapacity  of  Lewis  soon  led  him  into  new  troubles  anc 
entangled  him  in  a  quarrel  with  Cbarles  the  Bold,  son  ol 


MARRIAGE    OF  MAXIMILIAN.  .  173 

Philip  duke  of  Burgundy  ;  both  parties  took  the  field,  but 
Lewis  bought  off  with  money,  and  held  a  private  interview 
with  Charles  at  Peronne,  (then  in  possession  of  Charles  ;) 
here  Charles  caused  Lewis  to  be  secured  in  the  castle,  and 
held  him  as  his  prisoner,  compelled  him  to  march  against 
Liege  in  support  of  Charles'  claims,  and  assist  in  the  reduc- 
tion and  ruin  ofLiege. 

Upon  the  return  of  his  liberty,  he  attempted  to  unite  to  his 
crown  Burgundy,  Tranche  Compte,  Artois,  Flanders,  and  al- 
most all  the  Netherlands,  by  a  marriage  between  his  son 
Charles  the  Dauphin  (then  seven  years  of  age)  and  the  Prin- 
cess, daughter  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  was  sole  heiress. 

This  failed,  and  the  Princess  Mary,  was  married  to  Maxi- 
milian I.  son  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.  which  laid  the 
foundation  for  all  those  wars  between  France  and  Austria, 
which  desolated  the  low  countries. 

Lewis  settled  a  truce  in  Flanders,  but  the  troubles  of  France 
continued  to  his  death,  and  the  horrors  of  this  scene  inflicted 
some  punishment  on  him  for  the  cruelties  of  his  life.  Lewis 
was  the  first  king  of  France  who  assumed  the  title  of  most  Chris- 
tian majesty ;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Charles  VIII.  at 
fourteen  years  of  age,  and  the  regency  was  conducted  by  the 
duke  of  Orleans,  afterwards  Lewis  XII. 


CHAP.  XXII. 

.4  general  view  of  Europe  ;  league  of  Cambray  ;  commence- 
ment of  the  Reformation. 

THUS  having  surveyed  this  dark  and  distressing  period  of 
eleven  centuries,  we  come  down  to  that  epoch  in  the  history  of 
Europe,  when  the  reigns  of  Charles  the  VIII.  of  France,  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella  of  Spain,  Henry  VII.  of  England,  Maxi- 
milian I.  of  Germany,  and  popes  Sixtus  the  IVth,  and  Alex- 
ander VI.  formed  a  new  constellation  in  the  western  hemis- 
phere, a  period  when  the  balance  of  power  first  began  to  be 
felt  and  understood  ;  that  balance  of  power  which  has  been 
the  subject  of  such  distressing  r.nd  expensive  wars,  and  con- 
tinues to  this  day  to  waste  the  blood  and  treasures  of  Europe. 

Charles  VIII.  was  a  prince  of  great  ambition,  and  upon  the 
commencement  of  his  reign  found  all  the  great  fiefs  of  France 
15* 


174  BALANCE    OF     POWER. 

united  to  the  throne,  except  the  duchy  of  Brittany  ;  this  it  be 
came  the  interest  of  the  nation  to  unite  to  the  crown  by  a  mar- 
riage between  Charles  and  the  duchess.     After  the  removal 
of  several  important  obstacles,  this  was  finally  accomplished, 
and  Charles  found  himself  at  the  head  of  an  undivided  throne. 

The  union  of  the  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Arragon,  under 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  was  accomplished  by  a  similar  mar- 
riage in  Spain.  Under  their  patronage,  Christopher  Colum- 
bus opened  a  new  world  to  the  family  of  man  in  1492.  Hen- 
ry the  VII.  by  the  victory  of  Bosworth,  the  death  of  Richard 
the  III.  the  last  of  the  Plantagenets,  and  by  the  marriage  of 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.  quieted  the  civil  wars  of 
England,  and  restored  tranquillity  to  the  throne. 

Maximilian  I.  by  creating  the  high  court  of  the  imperial 
chamber  in  Germany,  quieted  in  a  great  measure  the  feuds 
which  had  long  distracted  the  empire,  established  a  union 
very  much  like  the  Achean  league  in  ancient  Greece,  and 
secured  tranquillity. 

Of  these  popes  like  all  their  predecessors,  we  cannot  find 
one  good  thing  to  say,  and  pass  over  the  many  corrupt  things 
we  might  say,  to  let  them  rest  in  silence. 

The  system  of  the  balance  of  power  which  now  began  to 
regulate  the  great  theatre  of  European  politics,  took  its  rise 
in  the  Italian  claims,  and  was  now  confirmed  by  the  expedi- 
tion of  Charles  VIII.  to  support  his  title  to  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  which  he  claimed  as  heir  to  the  house  of  Anjou. 

Charles  marched  into  Italy,  took  an  uncontested  possession 
of  the  throne  of  Naples,  marched  to  Rome,  took  possession 
as  a  conqueror,  humbled  pope  Alexander  VI.  in  the  castle 
of  St.  Angelo,  prescribed  conditions  to  the  smaller  states,  and 
thus  gave  law  to  Italy.  He  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
emperor  of  the  east,  upon  a  grant  of  Paleologus,  when  the  em- 
pire of  Constantinople  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  This 
bold  stride  of  Charles  called  forth  a  confederacy  composed 
of  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the 
Venetians,  and  the  duke  of  Milan,  sanctioned  by  the  pope. 

In  this  union  they  laid  aside  their  private  animosities,  for- 
med one  common  interest,  compelled  Charles  to  retrace  his 
steps,  return  to  France,  and  resign  the  conquest  of  Italy  in 
less  time  than  it  had  taken  him  to  acquire  it.  His  excesses 
soon  closed  his  life,  and  he  died  in  1498,  leaving  his  throne  to 
.Lewis  XII.  ;  the  fruits  of  this  coalition  have  been  the  means  of 
preserving  the  balance  of  power,  by  a  similar  resort,  to  this  day. 


LEAGUE    OF    CAMERAS'.  176 

Henry  VII.  of  England  made  an  effort  to  recover  the  prov- 
ince of  Brittany  in  the  reign  of  Charles  VIII.  but  was  appeas- 
ed with  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  Brittany,  together  with 
Burgundy  passed  into  the  hands  of  Lewis  XII.  then  to  Fran- 
cis I.  and  the  kingdom  has  remained  entire.  The  success 
of  the  coalition  against  Charles  VIII.  led  to  a  new  theatre  of 
events. 

The  republic  of  Venice,  together  with  Genoa,  became  the 
carriers  of  Europe  in  the  time  of  the  crusades,  which  laid  the 
foundation  for  that  commerce  which  had  now  raised  those 
cities  above  all  others  in  Europe,  both  in  wealth,  splendor, 
and  the  arts.  Venice  had  not  only  enriched  and  embellished 
her  city,  but  enlarged  her  state  by  seizing  on  the  dominions 
of  her  neighbors,  and  had  become  so  formidable  as  to  alarm 
the  fears  and  jealousy  of  pope  Julius  II. 

Situated  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  or  Adriatic  Sea, 
she  had  supplanted  the  ancient  city  of  Tyre,  and  engrossed 
the  commerce  not  only  of  Europe,  but  of  Asia,  and  even  of 
Africa  ;  her  government  which  was  altogether  in  the  hands 
of  the  nobles,  had  stood  unshaken  amidst  all  the  storms  that 
surrounded  her,  and  set  at  defiance  the  domination  of  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter. 

Julius  formed  a  coalition  to  humble  her,  known  by  the  league 
of  Cambray.  The  principals  of  this  league  were  Maximilian 
I.  of  Germany,  Lewis  XII.  of  France,  Ferdinand  of  Spain, 
together  with  the  princes  of  Italy  generally.  The  Venetians 
suffered  this  storm  to  gather  and  burst  upon  their  heads  with- 
out one  effort  to  divert  it ;  their  long  uninterrupted  prosper- 
ity had  corrupted  their  policy,  and  lulled  them  into  security. 

Overwhelmed  by  this  mighty  force,  they  abandoned  all 
their  conquests,  shut  themselves  up  in  their  city,  and  sued  for 
peace.  Julius,  who  was  at  the  head  of  this  league,  and  who 
had  thrown  his  keys  into  the  Tiber,  drawn  his  sword  to  as- 
sert his  dominion  and  become  a  champion  of  Mars,  seized  on 
and  recovered  such  territory  as  lay  within,  and  contiguous 
to  ecclesiastical  estates,  and  settled  a  peace. 

Alarmed  at  the  formidable  force  of  Lewis,  as  well  as  the 
rest  of  the  allies,  Julius  absolved  the  Venetians  from  his  spir- 
itual thunders,  united  them  in  his  interest  to  expel  all  for- 
eigners out  of  Italy,  and  drew  his  sword  upon  Lewis.  Julius 
diverted  Ferdinand  from  the  league,  united  the  Swiss  in  his 
interest,  and  solicited  and  obtained  the  aid  of  Henry  VIII.  of 
England,  who  co-operated  in  the  war. 


176  MARTIN  LUTHER. 

iThe  battle  of  Ravenna  lost  Lewis  all  his  claims  in  Italy, 
and  his  flight  was  as  rapid  as  the  flight  of  his  predecessoi 
Charles  VIII.  Julius  succeeded  in  all  his  plans  arid  died  at  an 
advanced  age,  leaving  the  chair  to  Leo  X.  1513. 

Henry  VIII.  followed  up  the  blow,  formed  a  league  witl 
Maximilian,  and  the  two  sovereigns  took  the  field  in  Flandei 
against  Lewis  XII.  where  the  emperor  Maximilian  served  in 
the  pay  and  under  the  command  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England. 

Here  commenced  the  English  and  German  coalitions  in 
Flanders  against  France.  Henry  was  entangled  in  a  war  with 
Scotland,  and  Lewis  with  pope  Leo  X.  at  the  same  time. 
The  war  in  Elanders  became  a  war  of  posts  ;  the  campaign 
closed  without  -advantage  to  the  parties,  Henry  returned  to 
England,  a  peace  was  settled  generally  by  intermarriages  the 
next  season,  and  the  storm  of  war  was  again  hushed. 

Lewis  died  1515,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son-in-law, 
Francis  I.  ;  the  next  year  died  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  who  was 
succeeded  by  his  grandson  Charles,  heir  to  the  archduke 
Philip,  sovereign  of  the  low  countries,  who  also  was  elected 
emperor  of  Germany,  upon  the  death  of  Maximilian,  under 
the  title  of  Charles  V.  1519. 

Amidst  this  bright  constellation  of  princes,  upon  the 
thrones  of  England,  France,  Spain  and  Germany,  appeared 
Martin  Luther,  the  angel  of  the  gospel,  and  the  champion  of 
the  reformation.  At  this  period  the  use  of  letters,  under  the 
art  of  printing,  the  use  of  gunpowder  in  the  art  of  war,  the 
use  ofthe  mariner's  compass  in  the  art  of  navigation,  Jhe  im- 
provements of  husbandry,  manufactures,  and  commerce,  to- 
gether with  the  discovery  of  a  new  world,  commenced  a  new 
era  in  the  annals  of  man,  opened  a  new  field  for  the  display 
of  talents,  enterprise  and  ambition  ;  gave  to  the  religion  of 
the  gospel  a  triumph  over  the  bigotry,  idolatrous  superstition 
and  corruption  of  popery,  and  opened  the  way  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  purer  church  in  Europe,  and  in  this  western 
wilderness. 


CHAP.  XXIII. 

General  state  of  society,  commerce.,  navigation,  and  the  arts  in 
Europe — -foreign  adventures  and  discoveries — reformation 
continued. 

BSFORE  we  enter  upoo  that  all-important  scene,  the  re- 


DISCOVERY    OF    INDIA*.  177 

formation  under  Martin  Luther,  let  us  take  a  view  of  com- 
merce, navigation,  the  arts,  and  state  of  society  generally,  at 
this  eventful  age. 

Portugal  which  had  been  erected  into  a  kingdom  by  duke 
Alphonso  Henriquez,  1 139  ;  was  torn  by  feuds,  and  distract- 
ed by  perpetual  wars  with  the  Moors,  until  the  reign  of  king 
John,  1385.  He,  like  Alfred  of  England,  turned  the  attention 
of  the  nation  to  their  fleet.  His  successor,  Don  Henry, 
enlarged  and  improved  the  plans  of  his  father,  cultivated  the 
sciences  with  great  success,  applied  the  science  of  astronomy 
to  the  art  of  navigation,  and  taught  the  Portuguese  how  to  ex- 
plore distant  lands,  who  by  their  successful  efforts  were  in- 
spired with  a  spirit  for  distant  adventure.  The  same  spirit 
grew  and  increased  under  the  succeeding  reign  of  John  II. 
who  transmitted  it  to  his  successor,  Emanuel  I. 

At  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  he  found  that  the  whole 
coast  of  Africa,  upon  the  shore  of  the  Atlantic  had  been  ex- 
plored by  his  predecessor,  as  far  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
the  Azores  and  Cape  de  Verd  Islands  were  opened  to  their 
view,  and  the  vine  and  sugar  cane  were  introduced  into  Ma- 
deira with  success. 

Emanuel,  alive  to  the  spirit  and  successes  of  national  enter- 
prize,  sent  a  fleet  of  four  ships  under  Vasco  de  Gama,  to  ex- 
plore the  Indian  Ocean,  who  discovered  Hindostan,  or  hither 
India,  1498,  touched  at  the  city  of  Calicut,  on  the  Malibar 
coast,  then  greatly  enriched  by  the  trade  of  the  Arabs,  who 
were  the  carriers  of  the  wealth  of  India,  by  the  way  of  the 
Red  Sea  to  Egypt,  or  by  the  way  of  Palmyra  to  Tyre  and  Si- 
don  ;  from  whence  the  Venetians  and  Genoese  conveyed  it 
to  Europe. 

De  Gama,  after  a  perilous  but  successful  voyage,  returned 
to  Lisbon,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  commerce  of 
India,  by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Pope  Alex- 
ander VI.  granted  to  Emanuel  all  his  new  discoveries,  and 
all  such  as  he  should  discover,  provided  he  should  propagate 
the  Christian  religion. 

Fired  with  zeal  and  enterprize,  in  commerce,  and  religion, 
the  whole  nation  caught  the  flame  ;  and  on  a  second  adven- 
ture with  thirteen  ships,  under  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  they  tra- 
versed the  great  Atlantic,  explored  the  coast  of  Brazil,  on  the 
continent  of  South  America,  in  1500,  took  possession  under 
the  title  of  the  land  of  the  holy  cross,  pursued  their  voyage 
by  the  way  of  the  C-ipe  of  Good  Hope  to  India,  establishd 
with  the  sword  an  independent  trade,  and  returned  to  Lisbon, 


178  DISCOVERY    OF    INDIA. 

A  strong  force  was  sent  out  in  1502,  which  confirmed  th< 
former  estabishment  in  India,  burnt  Calicut,  and  made  Go; 
the  emporium  of  Portuguese  commerce  in  India.  In  loll. 
Albuquerque,  the  Portuguese  governor  of  India,  took  the  citj 
of  Malacca.  He  ruined  the  commerce  of  Egypt  with  Indii 
by  his  depredations  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  thi 
turned  the  wealth  of  India  to  Lisbon. 

Albuquerque,  after  all  these  services  for  his  country  am 
the  world,  like  his  great  prototype,  Christopher  Columbu? 
fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  envy  and  malice  of  his  enemies,  am 
died  of  a  broken  heart,  in  poverty  and  disgrace. 

The  Portuguese  afterwards  extended  their  commerce  tc 
China  and  Japan.  J  he  discoveries  of  Christopher  Colui 
bus,  1492,  we  will  reserve  for  the  history  of  America. — TJ 
English,  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Dutch,  were  soon  engaged  ii 
the  commerce  of  the  east ;  and  all  that  wealth  which  used 
pass  into  the  west,  by  the  way  of  the  Persian  gulf,  to  Tyi 
and  the  Red  Sea,  to  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  and  from  thenc< 
by  the  ships  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  to  Flanders  in  the  lo\ 
countries,  and  Dantzic  and  other  ports  on  the  Baltic, 
thence  generally  diffused  over  Europe — was  at  this  tii 
brought  to  Lisbon,  by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
which  continues  to  this  day  the  highway  of  the  commerce 
the  west  with  the  east. 

Martin  Luther  commenced  his  labors  in  the  heart  of  Ge] 
many,  of  unfolding  to  the  world  the  mystery  of  iniquity  whicl 
had  for  so  many  centuries  been  veiled  in  the  mysteries 
popery,  by  publishing  the  pure  doctrines  of  the  gospel  in 
language  familiar  to  all,  and  disclosing  the  corruptions  of  th( 
beast  without  morals,   without  religion,  and  without  the  au- 
thority of  God. 

France  and  Spain  were  now  engrossed  in  the  strife  betweei 
Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  for  supremacy  in  Italy.  Henry 
VIII.  of  England  was  engaged  in  holding  a  balance  of  power 
between  them,  whilst  Luther  was  in  the  heart  of  Germany, 
publishing  good  tidings  of  good  things. 

He  was  opposed  by  pope  Clement  VII.  who  summoned  a 
diet  at  Worms  to  check  the  progress  of  Luther,  who  had  con- 
verted to  the  faith  nearly  one  half  of  Germany,  and  gained 
the  confidence  of  a  great  part  of  the  remainder.  The  edicts 
of  the  diet  of  Worms,  and  the  spiritual  thunders  of  Clement, 
were  lost  in  the  air  ;  Luther  set  them  at  defiance. 

Charles  V.  alarmed  for  the  safety  of  the  church,  and  the 


DIET    OF    SPIRES.  179 

peace  of  Germany,  assembled  the  diet  of  Spires  to  take  into 
consideration  the  state  of  religion  ;  they  confirmed  the  edicts 
of  Worms  ;  this  called  forth  the  protest  of  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  duke  of  Lurenburg,  the 
prince  of  Anhalt,  with  the  deputation  of  fourteen  free  impe- 
rial cities,  against  the  edict  of  Spires,  and  fixed  to  the  follow- 
ers of  Luther  the.  name  of  protestants,  which  continues  to 
this  day. 

Melancthon,  who  co-operated  with  Luther,  drew  up  a  sys- 
tem of  principles,  styled  the  confession  of  Augsburg,  which 
became  the  strong  hold  of  attack  and  defence  through  this 
wonderful  contest ;  resisted  the  sword,  the  torch  and  the 
gibbet,  with  all  the  malice  of  hellish  assassination  ;  stood  the 
palladium  of  the  reformation,  triumphed  over  the  beast  with 
his  ten  horns,  and  has  transmitted  the  blessings  of  "  peace 
on  earth  and  good  will  to  men,"  down  to  the  present  period. 

The  field  of  foreign  enterprise  led  off  the  attention  of  the 
maratime  states  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  the  great  contest 
in  Italy  between  Charles  V.  and  Francis  I.  (in  which  Fran- 
cis failed,  and  was  led  a  prisoner  from  the  siege  of  Pavia  into 
Spain,)  also  served  to  divert  the  attention  of  these  powers, 
and  open  the  way  for  the  more  easy  spread  of  the  reforma- 
tion-*—and  the  effects  of  these  very  struggles,  and  this  com- 
merce, were,  to  expand  the  minds  of  men,  and  facilitate  the 
easy  and  general  circulation  of  the  scriptures  of  truth. 

Henry  VIII.  of  England,  with  a  steady  eye  to  the  balance 
of  power  in  Europe,  effected  the  restoration  of  Francis  I. 
after  a  captivity  of  two  years,  entered  into  the  religious  quar- 
rels of  the  day,  and  by  his  defence  of  popery,  obtained  from 
the  pope  the  title  of  .defender  of  the  faith  :  but  when  his 
holiness  refused  to  sanction  the  diyorce  of  his  wife,  he 
threw  off  the  mask,  severed  his  kingdon  of  England  from 
the  holy  see,  founded  the  reformed  protestant  episcopal 
church,  by  a  decree  of  his  parliament,  placed  himself  at  its 
head,  and  at  one  bold  stroke  abolished  all  the  religious 
cloisters  of  England — thus  rooting  out  popery,  by  the  des- 
truction of  these  sinks  of  corruption,  together  with  the  in- 
fluence of  the  monks,  those  pests  and  drones  of  society,  who 
governed  them. 

Henry  proceeded  to  divorce  his  first  .wife,  Catherine  of 
Spain^and  in  succession  married  five  others  ;  of  these,  two 
were  divorced,  two  beheaded,  and  two  died  natural  deaths, 


180  DEATH  OF  MARTIN  LUTHER. 

Henry  was  no  Lutheran,  and  so  full  was  he  of  the  ideas  oi 
heretics,  that  he  denounced  all  who  questioned  his  supreme 
cy,  and  brought  to  the  block  all  who  advocated  the  doctrine? 
of  Luther.  The  six  articles  (called  the  bloody  bill)  whicl 
Henry  forced  through  his  parliament,  proved  him  to  be  yet 
an  orthodox  catholic  ;  the  observance  of  these  articles  h< 
enforced  with  the  punishment  of  death. 

Henry  VIII.  went  very  far  however  to  promote  the  refor- 
mation in  England  ;  though  he  was  as  bloody  an  enthusiast 
and  tyrant,  as  many  of  the  popes  of  Rome,  and  died  as  he  he  " 
lived,  a  catholic. 


CHAP.   XXIV. 

Jljfairs  of  Germany — England — France — massacre  of  St.  Ba] 
tholomew. 

THE  confession  of  Augsburg,  and  the  league  of  Smalkalde, 
which  united  the  faith  and  energies  of  the  protestants  in  Ger- 
many, maintained  a  firm  resistance  to  the  powers  of  the  em- 
peror and  the  pope,  until  they  were  broken  by  the  civil  wars, 
and  the  reduction  of  Saxony.  This  stroke  gave  strength  am 
confidence  to  the  emperor  ;  he  convoked  the  diet  of  Auj 
burg,  and  published  his  interim. 

This  placed  Charles  between  two  fires,  excited  the  indig- 
nation of  the  pope,  and  his  despotic  sway,  united  more  firml] 
the  protestant  league  of  Smalkalde,    and  brought  in  prim 
Maurice,  who  had  subdued  Saxony  for  the  emperor,  to  oppos 
Ch  irles,  and  support  the  protestant  league.     In  the  midst  oi 
these  scenes,    died  Clement  VII.  and  Francis  I.  who  wei 
succeeded  by  Paul  III.  and  Henry  II. 

This  change  of  measures  in  Maurice,  humbled  the  haughty 
plans  of  Charles,  and  fixed  the  reformation  upon  an  immova- 
ble basis  in  Germany. 

In  the  midst  of  these  troubles,  and  immediately  after  the 
league  of  Smalkalde,  died  Martin  Luther ;  having  kindled 
the  reformation,  and  having  lived  to  realize  that  waters 
could  not  quench,  and  that  floods  could  not  drown  it ;  but 
that  a  way  was  already  prepared  for  it  to  illuminate  the  world. 

Thus  we  have  seen  how  the  prediction  of  the  prophet  has 
been  fulfilled  in  this  angel  of  the  gospel ;  and  every  protestan4 


EDWARD  VI.  181 

divine  from  that  day  to  this,  has  added  one  more  blast  to  the 
trump  of  the  immortal  Luther  ;  and  all  who  shall  follow,  will 
continue  to  swell  the  blast,  till  the  commencement  of  the 
millenial  day. 

In  the  midst  of  the  triumphs  of  the  reformation  in  Germa- 
ny died  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  was  succeeded  by  his 
only  son,  Edward  VI.  at  nine  years  of  age.  Henry  settled 
his  crown  by  will ;  first  upon  Edward,  (by  Jane  Seymour  :) 
then  to  Mary,  (by  Catherine  of  Arragon  ;)  then  to  Elizabeth, 
(by  Anne  Bolyn.).  During  the  minority  of  Edward,  the  re- 
gency devolved  upon  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  with 
the  title  of  protector,  together  with  five  other  executors,  with 
archbishop  Cranmer  at  their  head.  Underthis  protectorate, 
a  war  sprang  up  between  England  and  Scotland,  which  led 
the  Scots  to  send  the  young  princess  Mary  into  France  for 
her  education.  It  produced  no  decisive  events,  and  closed 
with  the  triumph  of  the  reformation  in  England,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  church  and  Liturgy,  as  they  now  stand  at 
this  day. 

The  intrigues  of  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  which  brought 
to  the  block  the  regent  and  protector,  and  upon  the  death  of 
Edward  VI.  conferred  the  throne  upon  Lady  Jane  Gray,  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  heir  named  in  Henry's  will — the  arm  of 
justice,  supported  by  the  voice  of  the  nation,  which  set  aside 
lady  Jane  Gray,  brought  the  earl  of  Northumberland  to  the 
block,  and  placed  the  crown  upon  Mary,  the  rightful  heir — 
we  shall  pass  over  ;  together  with  the  bloody  reign  of  queen 
Mary,  in  which  she  attempted  to  restore  the  Catholic  reli- 
gion, with  the  union  and  sovereignty  of  the  holy  see,  at  the 
expense  of  the  best  blood  of  the  nation. 

In  this  bloody  reign,  a  John  Rogers,  a  Latimer,  a  Cran- 
mer, and  otner  worthies  of  the  protestant  church,  fell  a  sa- 
crifice. An  insurrection  to  resist  these  sanguinary  scenes, 
and  restore  lady  Jane  Gray  and  her  husband,  lord  Dudley, 
to  the  throne,  brought  these  worthies  to  the  block,  together 
with  many  who  abetted  their  cause  ;  popery  swam  in 
blood  £  •  years,  when  the  nation  was  relieved  by  the 
death  cf  Mary,  and  the  accession  of  the  illustrious  Elizabeth, 
1558. 

fhthe  same  year,  Charles  V.  at  the  age  of  fifty-six,  bes- 
towed his  crown  and  sceptre  upon  his  son  Philip  11.  king  of 
Spain,  and  husband  of  Mary  queen  of  England — that  he  might 
the  remainder  of  his  days  in  retirement  and  private  life  ; 

16 


182  QUEEN  ELIZABETH 

he  left  the  reformation  triumphant  in  Germany,  part  of  Swit 
zcrland,  in  England  and  Scotland,  with  favourable  prospects 
in  France  and  Ireland. 

One  of  the  first  steps  of  Elizabeth  was,  to  extend  the  arm 
of  protection  to  the  protestants  in  Scotland,  already  worn 
down  by  a  popish  persecution,  during  the  regency  of  queen 
Mary,  instigated  and  supported  by  the  intrigues  of  France, 
under  the  influence  of  her  husband,  Francis  II.  who  had  suc- 
ceeded Henry  II.  The  reformation,  after  a  severe  and  des- 
perate struggle,  triumphed  over  all  opposition  in  Scotland, 
by  the  assistance  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  established  there 
the  protestant  presbyterian  church,  as  enjoyed  at  this  day. 

The  death  of  Francis  II.  at  this  time,  left  the  queen  of 
Scots  without  issue,  guaranteed  to  the  protestants  of  Scotland 
the  enjoyment  of  their  religion,  and  to  Elizabeth  the  tranquil- 
lity of  her  throne. 

Charles  IX.  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  ten  years  of  age, 
and  the  kingdom  fell  under  the  regency  of  the  queen  mother  ; 
the  king  of  Navarre  was  named  lieutenant  general  of  France. 
At  this  time  the  reformation  had  taken  deep  root  in  France  ; 
and  the  catholics  and  protestants  were  so  nearly  balanced, 
that  some  degree  of  toleration  became  necessary  on  the  part 
of  the  crown  to  appease  the  violence  of  party.  An  edict 
was  accordingly  published,  allowing  to  protestants  the  free 
enjoyment  of  their  religion,  without  the  walls  of  cities. 
This  edict  led  to  a  civil  war,  in  which  Philip  II.  of  Spain  en- 
gaged in  the  bitterness  of  his  heart  against  the  protestants  ; 
and  Elizabeth  of  England,  that  champion  of  the  reformation, 
in  their  support.  The  protestants  after  a  severe  struggle, 
were  successful,  and  obtained  a  further  guarantee  of  their 
privileges. 

Upon  the  return  of  Mary ,  from  France  to  Scotland,  after  the 
death  of  her  husband,  Francis  II.  king  of  France,  she  car- 
ried with  her  all  the  elegance  and  splendor  of  her  person, 
polished  by  a  French  education,  and  the  principles  and  bigot- 
ry of  the  catholic  religion  ;  this,  notwithstanding  all  her  ef- 
forts to  prevent  it,  poisoned  the  nation,  and  embittered  her 
life,  by  alienating  the  affections  of  her  people,  exciting  their 
jealousy  and  distrust,  and  inflaming  the.  protestants  to  open 
acts  of  disrespect,  insult,  violence  and  rebellion. 

This  rebellion  in  Scotland  led  Mary  to  France  for  counsel 
and  support,  where  tho  reformation  was  denounced,  and  a 
total  ov*"'tlM*ovr  upon  th<?  continent,  especially  in  France. 


PROTECTOR    OF    PROTESTANTISM.  H'.o 

Spain,  and  the  low  countries,  concerted  at  Bayonne  by  the 
holy  or  catholic  league.  When  Mary  became  acquainted  with 
this,  she  determined  to  co-operate  in  Scotland,  and  suppress 
the  rebellious  protestants  by  severity,  even  to  extermination. 

In  the  midst  of  these  scenes  of  distress  in  the  nation,  Mary 
married  lord  Darnley,  against  the  will  of  the  protestants  ;  by 
him  she  had  a  son,  James  VI.  :  soon  after  this  event,  Darn- 
ley  died,  by  an  explosion  of  gun  powder.  The  tlames  of 
discord,  by  the  imprudencies  of  Mary,  were  again  kindled  in- 
to a  civil  war  ;  and  Mary  was  constrained  to  flee  into  England, 
place  herself  under  the  protection  of  her  sister  Elizabeth, 
where  by  an  order  of  Elizabeth,  she  was  confined,  and  lan- 
guished in  her  prison,  a  subject  of  intrigue. 

During  her  confinement,  Scotland  was  torn  by  the  con- 
flicting interests  of  the  catholics  and  protestants  ;  France 
became  again  the  theatre  of  a  religious  civil  war  ;  and  the 
low  countries  were  drenched  in  blood,  to  enforce  the  catholic 
league,  and  exterminate  the  hugunots  or  protestants.  The 
illustrious  queen  Elizabeth,  high  raised  on  the  protestant 
throne  of  England,  sat  clothed  in  majesty,  and  held  the  bal- 
ances. Again,  under  her  auspicious  influence,  the  protest- 
ants triumphed  in  France,  and  by  afavorable  peace,  secured 
the  enjoyment  of  their  principles. 

The  queen  of  Scots,  during  her  confinement,  had  recourse 
to  Charles  IX.  of  France,  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ;  but  the 
distracted  state  of  their  own  dominions,  left  them  no  leisure 
to  attend  to  her  unhappy  cause. '  The  persecutions  in  the 
low  countries,  under  the  duke  of  Alva,  a  blood  thirsty  bigot 
of  Philip  II.  drove  the  seven  provinces  of  Holland  to  unite  in 
their  own  defence,  raise  the  standard  of  rebellion,  and  assert 
their  independence  of  the  crown  of  Spain.  This  opened  a 
severe  and  bloody  contest :  they  applied  to  Elizabeth  for 
aid  ;  again  she  held  the  balances,  severed  the  low  countries 
from  Spain,  and  established  their  independence.  Elizabeth 
also  put  an  end~toHbe  catholic  persecutions  in  Scotland,  by 
giving  up  Mary  to  the  executioner  5  when  the  protestants 
triumphed  in  Scotland. 

Not  so  in  France  ;  the  catholic  league  filled  the  heart  of 
Charles  IX.  ;  he  affected  to  form  a  union  with  the  catholics 
and  protestants,  by  giving  his  sister  in  marriage  to  the  young- 
king  of  Navarre,  and  upon  the  grand  celebration  of  the  nup- 
tials in  Paris,  where  the  protestants  resorted  upon  the  occa- 
sion, from  all  parts  of  France,  he  ordered  a  general,  massacre 


.184  SI^ISH    ARMADA. 

to  commence  and  extend  throughout  the  kingdom.  More 
than  seventy  thousand  protestants  of  eyery  age,  sex,  and  con 
dition  throughout  France,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  this  bloody  edict 
Amidst  the  horrors  of  this  distressing  scene,  the  catholic 
jvtu-e  filled  with  rejoicings  for  the  triumphs  of  the  church  mil 
itant  upon  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  In  the  rnids 
of  these  scenes,  Charles  died  at  twenty-four  years  of  age,  o 
*  horrible  disease,  and  was  succeededby  Henry  III.  1574. 


CHAP.  XXV. 

Affairs  of  the  Reformation  generally — Spanish  Armada. 

THESE  conflicts  of  the  reformation  in  the  west  of  Europe 
gaye  an  entire  change  to  the  affairs  of  Christendom,  a/id  pro 
duced  new  scenes  and  new  theatres  of  action  ;  the  spirit  o 
commercial  enterprise,  also  gave  a  new  spring  to  the  mind  o 
man. 

The  emperor  Ferdinand,  who  succeeded  Charles  V.  1557 
!i»i»*lc  one  grand  effort  to  unite  the  discords  of  religion  in 
Germany,  by  the  council  of  Trent,  1561,  which  offered  ade 
£Tce  of  toleration  upon  the  plan  of  the  interim  of  Charles  V 
arid  was  in  like  manner  rejected  by  both  parties  ;  the  couh 
ril  was  dissolved  1563,  Ferdinand  died  1564,  and  was  sue 
ceededby  Maximilian  II. 

The  ambition  of  Selirn  II.  Sultan  of  Constantinople,  in  hi 
wars  with  the  Venetians,  and  upon  Hungary,  gave  full  em 
ployment  to  the  reign  of  Maximilian.  The  massacre  of  St 
Bartholomew  filled  Europe  with  horror,  and  France  with  re 
venge.  The  barbarous  and  sanguinary  principles  ofpoper 
greatly  promoted  the  protestant  cause,  raised  a  civil  war 
and  Henry  III.  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  protestants. 

In  the  midst  of  these  scenes,  Philip  II.  king  of  Spain,  great 
ly  enriched  by  commerce  and  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru 
and  highly  incensed  against  queen  Elizabeth,  as  the  protect 
or  of  the  protestants,  prepared  for  the  invasion  of  England 
with  the  most  formidable  fleet  then  ever  known,  styled  the 
invincible  armada  ;  to  tear  from  Elizabeth  the  balances  o 
Europe,  hurl  her  from  her  throne,  and,  like  William  of  Nor 
mandy,  wield  the  sceptre  of  England,  and  restore  the  right 
of  the  holy  see. 


DEATH    OF    ELIZABETH.  185 

The  armada  put  to  sea,  and  appeared  off  the  coast  of  Eng- 
land, threw  the  nation  into  a  state  of  consternation,  and  cal- 
led forth  all  the  majesty  and  energies  of  Elizabeth,  who  by  a 
special  act  of  heaven,  was  soon  relieved  from  her  alarm.  A 
violent  tempest  arose,  which  overwhelmed  the  armada,  dis- 
persed and  dashed  the  ships  against  the  rocks,  and  left  the 
fugitives  an  easy  prey  to  the  ships  of  Elizabeth,  and  at  a  blow 
her  throne  was  secured  ;  which  called  forth  from  the  queen 
this  memorable  expression — "  Deus  flavit  dissipantur." 
(God  blew  and  they  are  scattered.)  Elizabeth  at  the  same 
time  narrowly  escaped  from  the  blackest  conspiracy,  under 
Babbington.  4 

Henry  the  III.  of  France,  at  the  head  of  the  protestants,  at 
the  same  time  laid  siege  to  his  capital,  then  in  the  power  of 
the  catholics,  where  he  was  assassinated  by  a  Dominican  friar, 
and  left  his  crown  to  the  king  of  Navarre,  Henry  IV.  (first  of 
the  Bourbons,)  who  pressed  by  the  catholic  league,  had  re-* 
course  to  Elizabeth.  She  sent  him  aid,  by  the  mean^  of 
which  he  held  the  catholics  at  bay  ;  and  in  order  to  secure 
the  tranquillity  of  his  kingdom,  embraced  the  catholic  reli- 
gion, and  published  the  famous  edict  of  Nantz,  which  guaran- 
teed to  the  protestants  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  their  religion. 
Thus  Henry  restored  peace  to  his  throne,  in  the  midst  01 
jealousy,  gave  tranquillity  to  France  and  settled  a  peace  with 
Philip  of  Spain,  1598. 

At  this  time  died  Philip  II.  The  war  still  raged  with  vio- 
lence in  the  low  countries,  which  was  closed  by  a  truce  for 
twelve  years,  between  Philip  III.  and  the  United  ProvinceSj 
1609.  At  the  same  time  Philip  caused  the  Moors  to  be  ex- 
pelled from  Spain,  (more  than  one  million  of  hardy,  indus- 
trious inhabitants  :)  this,  together  with  the  loss  ofthe  arma- 
da, and  the  seven  united  provinces,  with  the  pride  and  indo- 
lence arising  from  the  great  influx  of  wealth  from  Mexico 
and  Peru,  and  the  degrading  effects  ofthe  inquisition  upon 
the  mind  of  man,  humbled  the  pride  of  Spain,  and  placed  her 
in  a  degraded  situation,  from  which  she  has  never  risen. 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  Philip  II.  died  queen  Eliz- 
beth,  1601,  and  left  her  throne  to  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  son 
of  Mary,  whom  she  had  beheaded  in  England.  James  unit- 
ed the  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scotland  ;  and  was  the  first 
king  of  Britain  under  the  title  of  James  I. 

The  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  is  above  all  comment  :  i! 
16* 


186 


HENRY    IV. 


stands  unrivalled  in  the  annals  of  England,  and  of  (he  world, 
and  opened  the  way  for  all  that  is  valuable  to  the  protestant 
cause. 

Henry  IV.  succeeded  to  a  throne  greatly  impoverished, 
and  almost  ruined  by  the  religious  civil  wars  in  France  ; 
but  his  energy,  talents,  and  ambition  fitted  him  to  fill  it  to  ad- 
vantage :  he  quieted  the  feuds  of  France  and  made  one  great 
effort  to  quiet  the  feuds  of  the  continent,  by  his  plan  of  one 
great  confederated  republic,  with  France  at  its  head. 

To  effect  this,  he  encouraged  and  promoted  the  protes- 
tant cause  in  Germany,  and  the  low  countries,  but  in  the 
midst  of  his  visionary  plans,  he  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  dagger 
of  a  monk,  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  1610,  and  was  succeeded 
"by  Lewis  XIII.  then  a  minor. 

France,  under  the  regency  of  the  queen  mother,  fell  again 
into  all  the  scenes  of  discord  and  civil  war  ;  and  the  conti- 
nent was  now  torn  with  the  conflicts  of  the  two  great  parties, 
known  by  the  names  of  the  evangelical  union,  and  the  catho- 
lic league. 

Germany  in  particular  was  one  continued  scene  of  civil 
war  ;  at  the  same  time  it  was  entangled  in  the  wars  of  the 
Frai u;«,  through  the  reigns  of  Rodolph  II.  and  Matthias,  down 
to  the  death  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  in  1624,  who  held  his 
share  in  these  feuds,  to  augment  his  power  in  Italy. 

The  United  Provinces,  notwithstanding  they  were  torn 
with  severe  religious  feuds  amongst  the  protestants  them- 
selves, immediately  after  the  pacification  of  1609  had  now 
greatly  extended  their  commerce  in  the  east,  taken  Brazil  in 
the  west,  and  were  the  immediate  commercial  rivals  of  all 
the  maritime  states  of  Europe. 

France  and  Germany  having  long  been  distracted  with  re- 
ligious feuds,  the  parties  prepared  to  settle  all  their  disputes 
'with  the  sword,  upon  the  great  theatre  of  Germany. 

A  marriage  took  place  at  this  time,  between  Charles  I.  then 
prince  of  Wales,  and  Henrietta,  sister  of  Lewis  XIII.  of 
France,  which  produced  the  same  consequences  in  England, 
as  the  marriage  of  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  with  Francis  II.  of 
France,  had  done  in  Scotland. 

The  war  between  the  protestant  union,  and  the  catholic 
league  commenced  about  1610,  became  general  throughout 
Europe,  called  into  action  ail  the  great  talents  of  Europe,  and 
was  Ihe  first  general  display  of  arms  in  Germany. 


GUSTAVUS    ADOLPHUS.  178' 

Upon  this  grand  theatre  of  action,  flourished  the  great 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  in  support  of  evan- 
gelic union,  and  crowned  with  his  death,  the  famous  victory 
of  Lutzen. 

This  triumph  of  Lutzen,  was  the  triumph  of  the  refor- 
mation ;  and  the  treaty  of  Prague,  1635,  guaranteed  to  the 
union,  from  the  court  of  Vienna,  all  the  claims  of  the  cham- 
pions ofthe  reformation  :  but  the  war  still  raged  with  France 
until  the  death  of  Lewis  XIII.  1643,  then  under  Lewis  XIV. 
until  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  1640.  This  again  confirmed 
to  the  union  all  former  treaties,  and  gave  them  an  uninter- 
rupted enjoyment  of  their  religion,  together  with  an  equal 
share  in  the  grand  councils  of  Germany,  and  broke  the  pow. 
er  ofthe  catholic  league. 


CHAP.    XXVI. 

Reformation   continued — Great  Britain  under  James  I.  ami 
Charles  I. 

UPON  the  death  of  queen  Elizabeth,  we  found  James  the  I. 
son  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  queen  oi  Scots,  as  the  rightful 
heir  ;  and  agreeable  to  the  wishes  of  Elizabeth,  and  the  two 
nations,  upon  the  throne  of  England.  James  I.  was  great 
grandson  of  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  ;  and 
upon  the  failure  ofthe  male  line  in  the  house  of  Tudor,  he 
was  the  true  heir,  and  commenced  the  dynasty  of  the  house 
of  Stuart  :  the  change  was  easy  and  regular. 

James  was  courted  by  all  the  potentates  of  Europe,  and  af- 
ter the  defeat  ofthe  conspiracy  in  favour  of  his  cousin,  Ara- 
bella Stuart,  enjoyed  a  tranquil  throne,  gave  his  whole  atten- 
tion to  the  sciences  ;  by  his  writings,  he  proved  the  pope  to 
he  antichrist,  and  modern  Rome  the  whore  of  Babylon. 

Emboldened  with  confidence  at  these  public  sentiments  of 
the  king,  the  sect  of  puritans,  which  had  now  greatly  increas- 
ed in  England,  ventured  to  approach  the  throne,  with  hopes 
of  obtaining  the  abolition  of  episcopacy.  This  bold  step 
alarmed  the  king,  and  he  returned  this  steady  reply  ;  **^> 
,  no  king." 


188 


JAMES    I.    AND    SCOTLAND. 


The  puritans  were  ordered  to  conform.  JVimes  declared 
himself  the  husband  of  one  wife,  destroyed  the  barriers  oj 
the  frontier  towns,  and  brought  the  two  kingdoms  together. 
These  popular  measures  of  James,  did  not  satisfy  the  puri- 
tans, nor  the  catholics,  and  the  latter  consented  to  the  diabol- 
ical scheme  of  destroying  both  king  and  parliament  at  a  blow, 
by  a  gunpowder  plot,  in  1605. 

Upon  the  detection  of  this  plot,  a  vast  quantity  of  gunpow- 
der in  barrels,  was  found  concealed  under  the  house  of  lords, 
the  day  before  the  session  of  parliament,  with  one  Fawkes, 
(a  Fleming,)  placed  as  the  centinel  and  executioner,  with  his 
matches  ready  prepared.  In  this  aiFair  were  involved  many 
catholics  of  the  first  distinction  ;  whose  conviction  and  exe- 
cution, spilt  some  of  the  best  blood  of  the  nation.  The  de- 
tection of  this  plot,  and  the  lenity  of  James,  secured  his  pop- 
ularity, and  absolved  him  from  all  suspicions  of  popery  durin: 
his  reign. 

James  made  great  efforts  to  civilize  the  English,  Scotch, 
and  particularly  the  Irish  ;  and  took  more  delight  in  r;io  arts 
of  peace,  than  of  war:  by  his  weakness,  he  distracted  his 
reign,  in  bestowing  unmerited  favors  upon  undeserving  favo- 
rites. To  support  these,  he  offended  the  nation,  by  sellinj 
to  the  Dutch  the  cautionary  towns,  pledged  to  queen  Eliza- 
beth when  she  granted  them  support  in  their  revolutionary 
struggle. 

James'  next  unpopular  step  was,  to  attempt  to  establish 
uniformity  of  worship  in  Scotland,  as  well  as  England,  togeth- 
er with  church  discipline  ;  for  this  purpose  he  visited  his 
native  country. 

The  nobility  of  Scotland  were  attached  to  the  government 
of  James,  the  people  were  under  a  certain  degree  of  feudal 
vassalage,  and  of  course  slaves  ;  but  the  kirk,  or  religion  oi 
Scotland,  was  free,  independent,  and  of  the  presbyterian  or- 
der. This  order  existed  at  this  time  in  Switzerland,  upor 
the  plan  ofZuinglius,  and  John  Calvin,  the  great  apostles  oi 
Switzerland. 

The  first  unpopular  stroke  cf  James  in  Scotland  was,  t< 
permit  certain  catholic  lords,  who  had  been  banished  Scot- 
land, to  return  to  the  kingdom.  This  lit  up  afire,  he  nevei 
could  extinguish,  and  raised  an  insurrection  which  placet 
James  at  the  mercy  of  a  mob  in  Edinburgh.  This  occasion- 
q|$  convention  of  the  states  of  Scotland,  where  James  ob- 
tained an  acknowledgement  of  bis  supremacy  over  the  cedes- 


CHARLES    1.  18$ 

iastical  affairs  of  Scotland,  and  the  power  of  settling  the  forms 
of  worship  and  church  discipline,  with  the  consent  of  the 
archbishops,  bishops,  and  a  competent  number  of  ministers. 

This  dangerous  power  was  opposed  by  his  parliament, 
and  relinquished  by  James  :  but  the  next  year  he  introduced 
some  ceremonies,  by  the  consent  of  the  kirk.  This  kindled 
the  fire  in  Scotland  ;  and  the  execution  of  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh, the  projector  of  the  colonies  in  North  America,  stamp- 
ed an  odium  upon  the  reign  of  James  which  followed  him  to 
his  grave. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  match  he  was  planning  for  his  son 
Charles,  the  prince  of  Wales,  with  the  Infanta  of  Spain,  rous- 
ed the  feelings  and  resentment  of  the  nation,  brought  on  a 
collision  between  James  and  his  parliament,  and  opened  the 
controversy  of  privilege  and  prerogative,  which  had  for  iti 
object  to  destroy  the  true  balance  of  power  in  the  government, 
by  throwing  too  great  a  weight  into  the  scale  of  monarchy, 
under  the  claim  of  prerogative,  or  too  great  a  weight  into  the 
scale  of  democracy,  under  the  claim  of  privile  \ 

The  Spanish  match,  after  a  most  courteous  interview  of 
Charles  in  Spain,  with  the  Infanta,  was  closed  by  intrigues, 
which  produced  a  war  between  England  and  Spain,  and  an  al- 
liance was  formed  between  Charles  and  the  princess  Henri- 
etta of  France.  Charles  succeeded  to  the  throne  upon  the 

death  of  liiTfaYher,  1625.  The  attempts  of  J:Z!?  to  lor(l  « 
over  the  forms  of  religion  in  Scotland  and  England,  drove 
from  his  kingdom  that  little  band  of  puritans,  with  their  pious 
m'nistcr  the  Rev.  John  Robinson,  who  fled  to  Holland,  and  who 
w:ll  become  the  subject  of  notice  in  the  American  narrative. 

The  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  had  accompanied  Charles 
to  Spain,  and  had  been  the  instrument  of  breaking  oif  the 
Spanish  match,  had  thereby  become  very  popular  with  the 
parliament.  x  This  increased  the  insolence  of  Buckingham, 
until  he  ruined  Charles  and  himself,  in  the  esteem  of  the  na- 
tion, and  paid  for  his  folly  and  temerity  by  the  knife  of  the 
assassin.  Charles  endeavoured  to  save  himself,  but  itwas  now 
too  late  ;  the  war  oi  prerogative  and  privilege,  between  Charles 
and  his  parliament,  had  gone  too  far.  Charles  tried  the  expe- 
dient of  dissolving  his  parliament ;  but  this  only  fanned  the 
fire  ;  the  war  against  France  in  support  of  the  Hugunots,  had 
done  the  same,  and  even  the  fall  of  the  obnoxious  Buckingham 
had  given  no  relief.  The  passions  of  the  parties  had  QIM- 
mounted  their  understandings,  and  what  was  best  for  the  na- 
tion, was  now  involved  in  the  point,  who  should  rule.  The* 


19U  CHARLES    J. 

queen  who  was  a  catholic,  and  archbishop  Laud,  who  was 
haughty,  violent  prelate,  had  both  great  influence  with  Charles : 
strengthened  his  obstinate  resolutions,  and  fixed  his  fate. 

A  specimen  of  the  religious  principles,  which  were  the  ba- 
sis of  all  this  national  struggle,  may  be  seen  in  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  church  of  St.  Catherine,  near  the  borders  of  Scot- 
land.    Archbishop  Laud  marched  in  procession  with  grea 
pomp  and  solemnity,  to  perform  the  holy  office  of consecrc 
tion.     When  he  approached  the  church,  a  loud  voice  ex- 
claimed, "Open!  open!  ye  everlasting  doors  !  and  let  th< 
king  of  glory  in" — the  doors  flew  open,  the  archbishop  ei 
tered — fell  on  his  knees,  and  exclaimed  with  extended  arms, 
and  uplifted  eyes,  "  this  place  is  holy,  the  ground  is  holy 
in  the  name  of  the  father,  son,  and  holy  ghost,  I  pronounce 
holy."     He  approached  the  communion  table,  and  bowec 
frequently  towards  it  ;  then  marched  in  procession  roun< 
the  church,  repeating  the  100th  psalm  ;  then  said  a  form 
prayer,  concluding  with  these  words  :  "  We  consecrate  this 
church,  and  separate  it  unto  thee  as  holy  ground,  not  to  b( 
profaned  any  more  to  common  uses  ;"  uttering  imprecatior 
on  all  who  should  profane  that  sanctuary,  bowing  towarc 
the  east  upon  every  imprecation,  and  exclaiming  "  Let 
the  people  say  amen."      He  then  pronounced  benedictioi 
on  all  who  should  nurse;  and  enrich  that  church  by  their  ter 
poral  gifts  ;  and  upon  every  benediction  bowing  towards  tho 
east,  exclaimed  :  "  Let  all  the  people  say  amen."    Suchwei 
the  counsellors,  and  such  the  religion,  which  distracted  th< 
nation,  under  the  externals  of  privilege  and  prerogative. 

In  this  state  of  things,  a  change  of  ministry,  even  under 
privilege  administration,  produced  no  change  in  the  publi< 
Feeling.     The  same  measures  distracted  both  England  am 
Scotland;  the  jurisdiction  of  Presbyteries,  Synods,  and  otl 
er  democratic  courts,  was  abolished,  and  the  general  assembl 
had  fallen  into  neglect  for  more  than  two  years  ;  all  this  kim 
led  the  fire  in  the  kirk  of  Scotland,  and  an  attempt 
made  to  revive  the  college  of  justice,  between  the  clergy  am 
laity,  as  before  the  reformation.     All  classes  of  people  took 
the  alarm,  and  popery,  was  the  general  cry. 

When  the  dean  of  Edinburgh  attempted  to  introduce  the 
liturgy  into  the  cathedral  of  St.  Giles,  arrayed  in  his  surplice 

"  a  pope  !  a  pope!"  vociferated  from  all  parts  of  the 

^iilrch  ;  and  the  tumult  was  so  great  as  to  require  the  inter- 
position of  civil  authority  to  protect  the  service.     All  these 


OLIVER    CROMWELL.  191 

arts,  led  the  Scots  to  unite  in  a  solemn  covenant,  to  resist  the 
usurpations  of  the  crown,  and  protect  the  kirk. 

This  coalition  of  power,  proved  a  barrier  to  the  encroach- 
ments of  Charles,  called  forth  the  best  talents  of  the  nation, 
and  opened  a  civil  war.  The  parliament  of  England  co-ope- 
rated with  the  covenanters,  and  their  vengeance  fell  first  on 
the  minister  of  Charles,  the  earl  of  Strafford  ;  who,  after  the 
most  masterly  and  dignified  defence,  was  convicted  of  trea- 
son ;  and  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  of  Charles  to  save  him, 
brought  to  the  block. 

This  sacrifice  produced  a  momentary  suspension  of  the 
evils  ;  but  the  fire  soon  began  to  rage,  both  in  England,  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  and  produced  from  the  English  parliament 
the  famous  remonstrance,  which  was  an  appeal  to  the  people, 
although  addressed  to  the  king  ;  and  was  fully  a  manifesto, 
and  a  signal  for  the  last  extremity.  The  violence  of  the  par- 
ties increased  daily  ;  excess  followed  excess,  and  violence 
and  extreme  succeeded  violence  and  extreme,  until  privilege 
swallowed  up  prerogative,  the  voice  of  the  king  was  lost  in 
the  usurpations  of  parliament,  a  civil  war  raged,  the  king  was 
overpowered  and  obliged  to  flee,  archbishop  Laud  was  ac- 
idised of  high  treason,  and  brought  to  the  block,  the  king  was 
taken,  brought  to  London,  imprisoned,  tried,  and  executed. 
ITis  death  laid  the  foundation  of  the  commonwealth,  under 
:he  protectorate  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 


CHAP.  XXVII. 

'Jreat- Britain  under  Oliver  Cromwell Charles  II. — France 

under  Louis  XIV. 

DURING  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  the  civil  and  religious  lib'- 
2rty  of  the  nation  engrossed  their  whole  attention ;  their 
igriculture  and  commerce  were  neglected  ;  their  foreign 
possessions  languished  ;  the  Dutch  seized  on  some  of  their 
most  valuable  spice  islands  ;  and  the  affairs  of  the  nation 
-vere  low.  The  triumph  of  liberty  over  tyranny,  and  the 
'all  of  the  tyrant,  opened  the  way  for  Oliver  Cromwell,  as 
he  popular  chief,  to  usurp  the  throne  and  give  law  to  the 
nation,  under  the  title  of  Lord  High  Protector.  Under  this 
itle  Cromwell  ruled  with  imperial  sway  :  but  the  house  of 


CHARLES  ii. 


liberty 


lords  had  been  abolished,  and  such  was  the  spirit  of  libe 
under  the  commonwealth,  that  Cromwell  with  all  his  efforts 
and  popularity  could  not  restore  it.  Under  this  government 
they  chastised  their  haughty,  insolent,  avaricious  neighbours 
the  Dutch,  in  several  desperate,  bloody,  and  decisive  naval 
combats,  extended  their  commerce,  improved  their  agricul- 
ture, cultivated  the  arts,  sciences  and  manufactures,  and  op- 
ened the  way  for  the  restoration  of  the  monarchy  under  the 
splendid  reign  of  Charles  II. 

Charles  succeeded  to  the  throne  through  the  artful  policy 
of  general  Monk,  who  relieved  the  nation  from  the  feeble, 
imbecile  reign  of  Richard,  son  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  whose 
talents  were  far  below  the  ambition  of  the  nation,  and  who 
reigned  only  seven  months.  Charles  II.  more  intent  on  his 
own  pleasures,  and  the  gratifications  of  his  courtiers,  than  the 
good  of  his  people,  suffered  the  commerce  of  the  nation  again 
to  decline,  and  the  Dutch  to  rival  them  in  India. 

The  efforts  to  settle  North  America  were  successful,  and  a 
foundation  was  laid  in  this  reign,  for  the  succeeding  prosper- 
ous enterprise  of  the  nation  in  the  new  world. 

That  spirit  of  the  reformation  which  had  resisted  the  vio- 
lent measures  of  Charles  I.  and  flourished  so  conspicuously 
under  the  commonwealth,  was  in  its  full  strength  in  Scotland, 
at  the  accession  of  Charles  II.  and  displayed  its  zeal  and  en- 
thusiasm, in  large  and  frequent  religious  assemblies  in  the 
open  field,  called  conventicles. 

That  liberty  which  always  accompanies  such  zeal,  Charles 
considered  as  incompatible  with  the  dignity  of  his  crown,  and 
sent  the  earl  of  Lauderdale  to  check  and  suppress  it.  Again 
the  spirit  of  the  reformation  was  called  to  assert  its  liberties 
against  the  violent  measures  of  the  crown  ;  but  not  with  the 
same  success.  The  power  of  the  crown  prevailed,  and 
through  the  extremes  of  violence,  cruelty  and  severity,  the 
spirits  of  the  enthusiasts  were  humbled.  If  such  things  could 
be  done  in  the  green  tree,  what  could  not  be  done  in  the  dry  : 
ifaprotestant  administration  could  be  guilty  of  such  severity 
and  cruelty,  what  might  not  be  expected  from  popery. 

Whilst  the  'nation  were  shocked  with  the  severities  of 
Charles,  and  distresses  of  Scotland,  they  were  roused,  as  by 
a  clap  of  thunder,  by  the  alarm  of  the  popish  plot.  This, 
whether  a  reality,  or  an  artful  finesse,  is  still  doubtful :  but  at 
that  time,  as  a  serious  reality,  it  excited  strong  apprehensions, 
and  threw  the  nation, into  the  highest  state  of  alarm  ;  opened 


LEWIS    XIV,  193 

again  the  sharpest  conflict  between  the  king  and  his  parlia- 
ment ;  excited  the  same  feelings  in  the  nation  as  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  1.  and  nothing  but  the  conciliatory  address,  and  high 
opularity  of  the  king  could  have  prevented  another  civil  war. 

The  intrigues  of  France  at  this  time,  had  a  powerful  influ- 
ence in  the  court  of  Charles  ;  he  made  the  most  of  it,  and  by  . 
a  money  compact  with  the  cabinet  of  Lewis  XIV.  became  in- 
dependent of  his  parliament,  assumed  a  dictatorial  style,  set 
them  at  defiance,  humbled  their  refractory  spirit,  and  tri- 
umphed in  their  submission. 

The  doctrine  of  passive  obedience,  and  non-resistance, 
became  the  order  of  the  day,  and  was  echoed  from  the  desk 
and  the  bar  through  the  nation.  Charles  enjoyed  his  success- 
es in  triumph,  deprived  the  city  of  London  of  its  charter  ; 
the  other  cities  tendecgd  a  voluntary  resignation  of  theirs, 
and  sealed  the  independence  of  the  crown. 

These  measures  excited  the  passions  and  indignation  of  the 
sons  of  liberty,  and  roused  the  resentment  of  the  Ryehouse 
plot,  (so  called,)  a  plot  destined  to  restore  the  commonwealth 
by  another  revolution.  This  was  discovered,  and  suppress- 
ed by  some  of  the  best  blood  of  the  nation,  and  laid  the  found- 
ation ofthrit  permanent  strength  in  the  monarchy,  which  alone 
has  supported  it  through  all  the  successive  struggles  of  the 
crown,  and  enabled  it  to  triumph  over  that  disorganizing  spirit 
of  liberty,  which  became  so  factious  in  the  time  of  the  French 
revolution. 

It  placed  in  the  power  of  the  crown,  (or  of  the  minister,) 
the  control  of  the  borough  elections,  which  constitute  three- 
fourths  of  the  members  of  parliament,  and  thereby  has,  to  this 
clay,  given  the  minister  the  control  of  that  branch  of  the  gov- 
ernment, and  rendered  the  crown  in  a  sense  despotic.  Charles 
disclosed  all  the  religion  he  had  at  his  death,  in  partaking  of 
the  papal  eucharist  at  the  hands  of  a  catholic  priest.  James 
II.  duke  of  York,  and  brother  of  Charles,  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  James  was  a  violent  catholic. 

Thus  we  see  how  God  has  overruled  the  conflicting  pas- 
sions of  men,  in  this  mighty  struggle,  of  the  reformation  with 
popery,  and  liberty  with  tyranny,  and  placed  the  government 
and  the  church  exactly  in  that  point,  which  have  proved  to 
this  day,  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  peace  and  prosperity  of 
that  nation,  and  the  good  of  the  world.  To  illustrate  this  re 
mark,  let  us  take  a  view  of  the  gigantic  power  of  Lewis  XIV. 
king  of  France.  Lewis  XIV.  succeeded  Lewis  XIII.  1643, 
in  the  midst  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  During  his  minority, 

17 


194  LEWIS    XIV. 

and  under  the  regency  of  the  queen  and  cardinal  Mazarine. 
France  was,  like  England,  distracted  with  feuds. 

When  Lewis  took  possession  of  the  crown,  he  was  the 
most  splendid,  ambitious  monarch  that  ever  filled  the  throne 
of  France.  He  cherished  the  discords  in  England,  and  at 
the  same  time  revived  all  the  ancient  claims  of  the  crown 
under  Charlemagne,  and  erected  the  standard  of  conquest  to 
recover  them. 

Spain  attempted  to  avail  herself  of  the  feuds  in  France, 
which  arose  out  of  the  management  of  Mazarine  ;  but  Lewis, 
united  with  Cromwell,  the  protector  of  the  commonwealth 
of  England,  soon  humbled  Spain,  and  closed  this  war.  The 
struggle  for  supremacy  upon  the  ocean,  which  began  between 
England  and  the  seven  United  Provinces  of  Holland,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  still  continued  ;  and  England  under  Crom- 
well, gained  a  decided  superiority  over  the  Dutch. 

Upon  the  accession  of  Charles  II.  Lewis  availed  himself  of 
this  strife,  and  engaged  England  in  his  views,  to  humble  the 
Dutch,  and  add  the  low  countries  to  France.  For  this  purpose 
he  assembled  a  most  splendid  military  force,  took  the  field  in 
person,  and  entered  JFlanders  at  the  head  of  his  army. 

At  the  same  time  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Eng- 
land amounted  to  one  hundred  ships.  The  United  Provin- 
ces were  thrown  into  the  highest  state  of  alarm  ;  they  collect- 
ed their  fleet  to  guard  and  protect  their  ports,  inundated  their 
country,  sued  for  peace,  and  offered  the  most  flattering  terms  : 
but  all  to  no  effect :  their  ruin  was  sealed  by  the  vindictive 
malice  of  Charles,  and  the  all-conquering  ambition  of  Lewis. 
The  terms  were  rejected,  and  the  war  pursued  with  vigor. 

This  roused  up  the  energies  of  the  Dutch,  who  had  by  their 
efforts  ransomed  their  country  from  the.  ocean,  and  enriched 
it  by  their  commerce.  They  declared  the  prince  of  Orange, 
stadtholder,  or  chief  magistrate  of  the  nation  ;  and  prepared 
for  defence.  The  throne  of  William  was  secured  by  the 
violent  death  of  the  De  Witts,  and  others  opposers  in  Hol- 
land ;  and  he  j;ook  the  field  in  person. — The  conflict  on  the 
ocean  was  desperate,  and  the  confederates  successful  ;  but 
the  stadtholder  triumphed  over  Lewis  in  the  low  countries, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  abandon  all  his  conquests. 

Spain  and  Germany,  by  an  alliance,  supported  the  stadt- 
holder. The  distracted  state  of  England  compelled  Charles 
II.  to  withdraw  from  the  war  and  offer  his  mediation.  The 
war  became  a  war  of  posts,  and  was  attended  with  great  di?- 


LEWIS  XIV..  i(j>0 

tics  and  valor.  At  this  time  Sweden  became  con- 
federate with  France,  and  Charles  II.  a  pensionary  to  Lewis, 
by  a  secret  treaty. 

Lewis  became  formidable  at  sea,  and  successful  against 
the  combined  fleets  of  Spain  and  Holland,  in  a  splendid  naval 
action  on  the  coast  of  France  ;  this  victory  was  sealed  by  the 
death  of  the  gallant  De  Ruyter,  the  Dutch  admiral.  The  af- 
fairs of  France  again  became  prosperous,  and  Lewis  was  suc- 
cessful at  all  points,  both  against  Holland  and  Spain.  He  tri- 
umphed over  England,  through  the  venality  and  corruption 
of  Charles  II.  ;  triumphed  over  Spain,  Holland  and  the  em- 
pire, and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  future  splendor  of  his 
crown,  by  the  possessions  he  retained  in  the  low  countries, 
at  the  peace  of  Nimeguen,  in  1648. 


CHAP.  XXVIII. 

France  continued — Europe  generally — League  of  Jlugsburg-*- 
Remarks. 

Lewis  XIV.  notwithstanding  the  exhausted  state  of  hie 
treasury,  still  kept  up  his  powerful  military  forces,  and  with 
them,  that  passion  for  glory,  and  lust  of  ambition,  with  which 
he  commenced  his  reign,  and  which  were  the  characteristic 
features  of  this  haughty  monarch.  He  assumed  the  dictato- 
rial style  of  Charlemagne,  seized  on  Strasburg,  and  rendered 
it  impregnable,  by  the  talents  of  the  famous  Vauban.  He 
began  to  flatter  himself  that  all  Europe  would  soon  feel  his 
sway,  and  that  he  should  establish  the  ancient  dominion.  To 
this  end,  he  distracted  the  empire  of  Germany  with  feuds, 
excited  the  Turks  to  war  against  them,  to  humble  the  house 
of  Austria,  which  would  have  been  ruined,  had  not  the  king 
of  Poland  interposed  with  a  powerful  army,  compelled  the 
Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna,  abandon  their  conquests 
in  Germany  and  Hungary,  return  to  their  former  limits,  and 
settle  a  peace. 

Lewis  embraced  this  favorable  moment  to  extend  his  do- 
minions, by  seizing  on  several  important  parts  of  the  low 
countries,  and  settled  a  peace  with  Spain,  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  turned  his  attention  to  his  fleets. 

At  this  critical  moment,  died  the  illustriou^  Colbert,  prime 


198  LEAG¥E    OF    AYGSBURtt. 

minister  of  Lewis,  and  whose  sagacious  mind,  as  a  statesman 
and  financier,  had  raised  Lewis  to  the  summit  of  his  greatness. 
With  the  death  of  Colbert,  fell  the  greatness  of  Lewis,  and 
left  his  pride  and  ambition,  like  a  ship  in  the  midst  of  a  tem- 
pest, without  a  pilot. 

Lewis  revoked  the  memorable  edict  of  Nantz  :  that  shield 
of  the  reformation  under  Henry  IV.  and  put  forth  all  his  ef- 
forts to  establish  popery  upon  the  ruin  and  conversion  of  pro- 
testantism ;  but  without  effect.  This  cruel  artifice  of  priest- 
craft, butchery,  and  military  executions,  ruined  the  manufac- 
turing interest,  which  the  immortal  Colbert  had  promoted 
and  encouraged  amongst  the  protestants.  One  twentieth 
part  of  the  whole  number,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  these  barbarous 
and  impolitic  measures  ;  a  price  was  set  on  the-  heads  of  the 
remainder,  they  were  hunted  like  wild  beasts  of  the  forest, 
and  forbidden,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  leave  the  kingdom. 

In  the  face  of  all  this  severity,  however,  more  than  six 
hundred  thousand  protestants  left  the  kingdom  ;  ruined  the 
manufacturing  interest  of  France,  and  transplanted  it  into  the 
neighbouring  kingdoms.  This  severity  was  not  the  result  of 
submission  to  the  Roman  pontiff  ;  his  haughty  spirit  led  him 
to  humble  pope  Innocent  XI.  in  the  most  humiliating  manner, 
and  triumph  over  all  his  excommunications. 

This  cruel,  and  vindictive  persecution  against  the  reforma- 
tion, arose  from  the  haughty  imperious  spirit  of  Lewis,  and 
from  the  weakness  of  his  uninformed  mind.  He  soon  felt 
the  rashness  of  these  measures.  The  protestants  in  Germa- 
ny, throughout  the  empire,  formed  the  famous  league  of 
Augsburg,  to  restrain  the  overbearing  spirit  of  France. 

The  emperor  Leopold  added  Hungary  to  Austria,  and  pla- 
ced his  son  Joseph  upon  that  throne,  upon  the  suppression 
of  the  Turkish  invasion,  and  was  now  ready  to  become  party 
in  the  league  of  Augsburg,  against  France. 

Thus  we  see  how  God  makes  use  of  his  means,  to  effect 
his  ends,  and  with  what  wisdom  all  his  great  purposes  are 
accomplished. 

The  art  of  printing  had  greatly  facilitated  the  improvement 
of  letters,  and  swept  away  that  gross  ignorance  which  had 
prevailed  through  the  dark  ages,  (that  nursery  of  bigotry  and 
superstition  ;)  given  expansion  to  the  mind  of  man,  and  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  reception  of  those  great  and  important 
truths  the  immortal  Luther  was  destined  to  unfold. 

The  excesses,  corruptions  and  abuse  of  power,  which  at 


tins  time  ha 


COFEAKICU9,     KEPLER,    GALLILLO.  197 


us  time  had  become  notorious  in  the  catholic  church,  led  to 
a  general  inquiry  amongst  the  learned,  and  better  informed 
part  of  society  ;  doubts  began  to  arise  with  regard  to  many 
of  the  dogmas  of  the  church,  and  the  abuse  of  power  in  the 
sale  ofindulgencies  (which  had  now  become  notoriously  cor- 
rupt) staggered  the  faith  of  some,  disgusted  the  feelings  of 
others,  and  shocked  all  common  sense. 

The  pen  of  Erasmus  was  pointed  and  severe,  well  calculat- 
ed to  excite  doubts,  and  lead  the  public  mind  to  pause,  reflect 
and  consider,  whether  all  this  was  founded  upon  the  author- 
ity of  God. 

The  waste  of  blood  and  treasure,  which  had  so  long  ac- 
companied this  despotic  power,  had  fairly  opened  the  way 
for  the  introduction  of  those  truths,  the  immortal  Luther  was 
destined  to  unfold  ;  and  Germany  was  well  prepared  to  be 
the  great  theatre  of  action. 

Armed  with  the  authority  of  God,  Luther  stood  forth,  the 
great  champion  of  truth  ;  unfolded  the  pure  principles  of  that 
gospel  which  had  been  so  long  corrupted  and  abused  :  set  at 
defiance  that  power  which  claimed  and  exercised  the  right  of 
extirpating  all  opposition  by  force  ;  raised  the  public  mind 
to  resist  that  infallibility,  they  had  now  been  led  to  doubt  ; 
and  by  his  firmness,  learning,  and  talents,  established  the  re- 
formation upon  an  immoveable  basis. 

Germany,  which  had  suffered  most  severely  from  the  des- 
potic power  of  the  popes  through  the  dark  ages,  was  now 
destined  to  become  the  light  of  the  world,  in  religion,  and  in 
science.  Luther  stood  forth  as  the  light  of  the  gospel  ;  Co- 
pernicus, (of  Thorn)  unfolded  the  mysteries  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  taught  the  true  doctrine  of  the  solar  system  ;  and 
Kepler  illustrated  the  true  figure  of  their  orbits  :  all  these 
combined,  gave  such  expansion  to  the  mind,  as  led  to  a  more 
general  inquiry,  opened  the  way  to  a  more  general  and  cor- 
rect understanding  of  the  .truth  of  religion,  of  nature,  and  of 
God. 

Italy  at  this  time  was  favoured  also  with  her  Gallileo, 
whose  inventive  genius  greatly  improved  the  telescope,  by 
which  the  systems  of  Copernicus  and  Kepler  were  confirmed, 
and  the  rotation  of  the  sun  upon  its  own  axis,  the  satellites  of 
the  several  planets,  the  phases  of  Venus,  and  the  mountains 
in  the  moon  were  all  discovered. 

All  these  gre-it  events  combined,  excited  a  general  inquiry,,; 
this  was  increased,  and  strengthened  by  the  persecutions  of 

17* 


198 


JAMES 


the  popes,  who  denounced  the  whole  as  one  great  system  of 
absurdity  and  heresy.  The  inquisition  of  Italy,  so  late  as 
1633,  passed  a  decree,  declaring  the  solar  system  of  Coper- 
nicus expressly  contrary  to  the  holy  scriptures,  false  and 
absurd  in  sound  philosophy,  as  well  as  erroneous  in  the 
faith  ! 

These  great  luminaries  of  Germany,  have  "diffused  their 
light,  as  we  have  noticed,  throughout  the  Christian  world,  and 
have  unfolded  to  men  that  great  system  of  religious  and  lite- 
rary truth  which  they  no;v  enjoy,  and  which,  under  their  fu- 
ture improvements,  they  are  destined  to  enjoy. 


CHAP.    XXIX. 

England  ;  and  Europe  generally  from  the  accession   of  James 
H.  to  the  rise  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits. 

AT  this  eventful  period  when  the  league  of  Augsburg  had 
united  the  whole  protestant  cause  of  Europe,  as  one  great 
family,  to  resist  the  overbearing  power  of  that  chastising 
rod,  Lewis  XIV.  king  of  France,  commenced  the  unhappy 
reign  of  James  II.  as  successor  of  Charles  II.  of  England. 
His  character  as  a  papist,  under  the  title  of  duke  of  York, 
had  occasioned  much  warmth  of  feeling  and  expression, 
during  the  reign  of  Charles,  and  was  yet  remembered. 
Notwithstanding  his  flattering  assurances,  he  discovered  the 
purposes  of  his  heart,  in  his  imperious  speech  to  his  parlia- 
ment. 

Conspiracy  soon  kindled  into  a  flame,  and  raised  an  insur- 
rection in  the  nation.  At  this  time  he  commenced  a  career 
of  general  favor  and  indulgence  to  papists,  both  in  England 
and  Ireland,  and  issued  a  declaration  of  general  indulgence, 
or  liberty  of  conscience,  by  his  own  absolute  and  arbitrary 
power ;  sent  an  ambassador  to  Rome,  in  order  to  unite  the 
crown  of  England  again  to  the  holy  see  ;  gave  a  public  au- 
dience to  the  pope's  nuncio,  and  consecrated  four  popish 
bishops  in  the  king's  chapel  ;  permitted  the  monks  to  ap- 
pear at  court  in  their  respective  habits  ;  attempted  to  intro- 
duce Roman  catholics  into  the  church  and  universities  ;  en- 
deavored to  gain  the  protestant  dissenters,  and  to  form  them 
into  a  union  with  the  catholics,  by  ordering  a  new  declaration 


ot  indulgence 


WILLIAM  AND    MARY. 


ilgence,  and  causing  it  to  be  read  in  the  pulpit  by  all 
of  the  established  clergy. 

The  clergy  resisted,  and  a  general  alarm  was  excited 
throughout  the  nation.  They  invited  William,  prince  of  Or- 
ange, (who  had  married  Mary,  daughter  of  James)  to  assume 
the  government.  He  complied  with  the  call  of  the  nation, 
landed  in  England  with  a  strong  naval  and  military  force, 
amidst  the  popular  commotions  and  struggles,  seized  on  the 
crown,  and  James  fled  to  France.  The  Scotch  submitted  to 
the  government  of  William  ;  he  summoned  a  convention  to 
settle  the  affairs  of  the  nation  ;  who  placed  the  crown  upon 
William  and  Mary,  by  an  instrument  of  settlement,  which 
closed  all  the  struggles  of  privilege  and  prerogative,  and  fix- 
ed the  constitution  upon  a  permanent  basis. 

During  these  mighty  struggles,  episcopacy  had  been  estab- 
lished in  England  and  Scotland  ;  this  occasioned  at  this  time 
some  division  of  sentiment,  and  some  warmth  of  feeling  ;  but 
the  presbyterians,  who  composed  the  mass  of  the  people  in 
Scotland,  favored  and  supported  the  throne  of  William  and 
Mary. 

James,  at  the  same  time  sealed  his  own  ruin  by  favoring  a 
catholic  insurrection  in  Ireland,  and  by  the  aid  of  Lewis  XIV. 
actually  embarking  in  France  with  a  military  force,  and  pla- 
cing himself  at  its  head.  This  occasioned  a  warm  conflict 
between  the  English  and  Irish  parliaments,  and  excited  a  gen- 
eral alarm  in  the  nation  ;  William  declared  war  against  Lew- 
is, and  became  a  party  in  the  league  of  Augsburg. 

At  this  time  the  divisions  in  Scotland  were  settled  by  the 
sword,  and  the  government  of  William  quietly  established. 
James  met  with  a  warm  resistance  from  the  protestants,  in 
Ireland,  who  were  supported  by  William  in  person,  who  tri- 
umphed over  James,  defeated  and  destroyed  his  army,  that 
he  fled  again  to  France  :  the  insurrection  was  soon  quelled, 
and  all  Ireland  submitted  to  the  government  of  William. 

The  spirit  of  faction  was  not  yet  quelled  in  England  ;  the 
fire  of  the  parties  soon  revived,  appeared  in  parliamentary 
feuds,  and  was  kindled  into  a  blaze  by  the  rashness  of  Wil- 
liam, at  the  massacre  of  Glencoe,  in  Scotland.  This  excited 
a  general  alarm,  which  roused  up  the  nation  to  a  spirit  of  op- 
position and  gratified  the  spirit  of  Lewis  XIV.  king  of  France — 
he  immediately  furnished  James  with  a  powerful  naval  and 
military  force,  who  put  himself  at  their  head  to  invade  Eng- 


200 


LEWIS    XIV. 


land,  and  recover  the  crown  ;  but  a  decisive  action  gained  at 
this  critical  moment  over  the  French  fleet  by  the  English, 
checked  the  expedition  ;  closed  all  the  future  prospects  of 
James  ;  and  after  a  few  more  feuds  in  England,  settled  and 
established  the  government  of  William,  and  rendered  the,  re- 
formation again  triumphant  in  England. 

The  league  of  Augsburg  hud  now  called  forth  all  the  efforts 
of  Christendom,  to  humble  the  haughty,  overbearing  spirit  oi 
Lewis,  and  roused  him  up,  like  a  lion  of  the  forest,  to  take 
vengeance  on  his  enemies.  He  cherished  his  alliance  with 
the  Turks  to  make  a  diversion  in  Hungary  ;  assembled  an 
army  of  four  hundred  thousand  men,  and  entered  Germany 
and  the  low  countries,  with  various  success  ;  at  the  same 
time  the  fleet  of  Lewis  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch. 

Lewis  took  the  field  in  person,  and  appeared  with  great 
splendor  in  Flanders  ;  the  war  became  general,  and  raged  in 
Hungary,  Germany,  Flanders,  Spain  and  Italy.  Europe  had 
never  before  witnessed  such  splendid  armies,  under  such 
splendid  captains,  together  with  such  displays  of  valour  and 
military  tactics.  Mathematics,  as  applied  to  the  art  of  gun- 
nery and  fortification,  at  this  period,  attained  their  highest 
perfection,  under  the  talents  of  a  Vauban.  The  war  became 
generally  a  war  of  posts,  and  raged  with  various  success  from 
1688,  to  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  with  France,  1698,  and  of 
Carlo  wits  with  the  Turks,  1699. 

This  war  gave  a  general  triumph  to  the  reformation  over 
popery,  leagued  with  the  infidels,  and  greatly  facilitated  the 
progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences  ;  gave  a  new  polish  and  lus- 
tre to  military  tactics,  and  a  new  splendor  to  society  in  Eu- 
rope. The  good  effects  of  the  reformation  were  generally 
felt  and  acknowledged,  throughout  Christendom  ;  this  excit- 
ed a  general  spirit  of  inquiry  and  learning  amongst  the  catho- 
lic clergy,  and  a  general  improvement  in  their  morals. 

This  ecclesiastical  spirit  of  science  and  morals  was  greatly 
improved  by  a  new  monastic  order,  which  sprang  up  at  this 
time,  styled  the,  order  of  the  Jesuits,  from  the  frequent  use 
they  made  of  the  name  Jesu.  This  order  became  the  imme- 
diate champions  of  the  pontiffs — they  became  the  confessors 
of  all  the  catholic  monarchs  of  Christendom,  and  by  that 
means  the  organs  of  intelligence  to  their  masters  the  popes, 
and  rendered  the  chair  of  St.  Peter  the  repository  of  all  the 
intrigues  of  Europe. 


REFINEMENT    OK    MANNERS.  201 

They  also  served  as  ambassadors  to  the  popes  in  all  foreign 
courts,  and  thus  the  organs  of  the  secrets  of  all  the  courts  in 
the  world.  The  zeal,  intrigue,  and  corruption  of  this  order 
caused  its  ruin  in  the  eighteenth  century.  That  general  im- 
provement of  manners,  literature,  taste  and  refinement, 
which  began  to  dawn  in  Europe  in  the  distinguished  reigns  of 
Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Germany,  Francis  I.  of  France,  and 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  received  a  polish  in  this  war,  which 
with  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  commen- 
ced a  new  order  of  things  in  Europe. 


CHAP.  XXX. 

of  Europe  generally — northern  confederacy — eapturf, 
of  Gibraltar  by  the  English. 

FROM  the  time  that  Francis  I.  of  France  introduced  the 
ladies  at  court,  (about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century) 
the  drama  of  life  in  Europe  has  experienced  an  entire  change  ; 
ferocity  has  given  place  to  urbanity,  and  barbarism  to  refine- 
ment. Although  a  general  corruption  of  morals  grew  out  of 
this,  in  its  early  stages,  which  soon  was  refined  into  an  ele- 
gant sensuality,  and  next  into  a  polished  system  of  gallantry, 
and  romantic  effeminacy  ;  it  Jfeis  the  means  of  giving  that  high 
polish  to  the  reign  of  Lewis  T^V. 

In  this  splendid  reign,  the  sword  in  single  combat  (which 
was  also  sanctioned  by  the  former  example  of  Francis  I.) 
gave  a  check  to  ostentation,  pride  and  haughteur,  protected 
the  characters  and  virtues  of  the  fair  sex,  and  united  with 
their  example,  had  a  commanding  influence,  in  forming  the 
manners  of  the  times. 

All  that  splendid  taste  in  the  fine  arts,  and  all^^tt  classical 
elegance,  which  had  been  revived  in  Italy  a  celmiry  before, 
were  now  transplanted  into  France,  and  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  The  spirit  of  the  reformation  had 
given  expansion  to  the  mind  of  man  ;  suppressed  the  over- 
bearing ignorance  and  bigotry  of  the  catholic  domination  ; 
awakened  freedom  of  thought,  and  freedom  of  speech,  and 
diffused  a  general  spirit  of  toleration  throughout  Christen- 
dom, accompanied  with  a  general  influence  on  government 
and  manners  ;  these  combined,  paved  the  way  for  that  iiber- 


202  PARTITION  TREATY.. 

ty,  literature  and  science,  which  has  come  down  te  us,   and 
which  we  so  richly  enjoy; 

Immediately  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  the  declining 
health  of  Charles  II.  of  Spain,  opened  a  new  field  of  intrigue 
amongst  the  competitors  for  the  crown,  and  kindled  a  new 
flame  in  Europe.  These  competitors  were  no  less  than  Lew- 
is XIV.  the  emperor  Leopold  the  I.  of  Germany,  and  th< 
elector  of  Bavaria.  Their  claims  of  consanguinity,-  were 
nearly  equal,  and  the  general  interest,  and.tranquillity  of 
Europe,  required  the  succession  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria, 
because  it  would  produce  the  least  effects  on  the  balance  of 
power.  The  intrigues  of  the  competitors  ran  high  ;  all 
Europe  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  struggle  ;  the  Spanish 
nation  favored  the  lineal  succession  of  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
but  the  queen,  who  was  a  German  princess,  favored  the  em- 
peror Leopold. 

During  this  conflict  of  intrigue,  a  treaty  of  partition  was 
framed  in  the  most  secret  manner,  between  England,  France, 
and  Holland,  to  divide  the  kingdom  and  provinces  of  Spain, 
amongst  the  contracting  parties,  uponth-e  demise  of  Charles. 
The  secrets  of  this  treaty  soon  reached  the  ears  of  Charles, 
and  fired  him,  like  a  shock  of  electricity,  with  indignatior 
and  resentment.  He  summoned  an  extraordinary  council, 
made  his  will,  conveyed  the  succession  to  the  elector  of  Ba- 
varia, and  recovered  his  health.  The  sudden  death  of  the 
elector,  defeated  the  will,  and  Clewed  the  treaty  of  partition, 
upon  an  entire  new  plan.  B^his  treaty  it  was  stipulated, 
that  no  dauphin,  or  king  of  France,  should  ever  wear  the 
crown  of  Spain. 

During  this  struggle  of  intrigue  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
new  drama  commenced  in  the  north,  under  the  reigns  oi 
Frederic,  king  of  Denmark  ;  Charles  XII.  king  of  Sweden 
Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony,  and  king  of  Poland  ;  and  Petei 
(he  I.  empacor  of  Russia.  The  improvements  of  the  north, 
1i-ul  lain  tflBJant  in  a  great  measure,  witrf4heir  long  tran- 
quillity, and  had  not  kept  pace  with  the  refinements  of  the 
south  ;  until  this  splendid  constellation  arose,  and  diffused  its 
lustre  over  those  regions. 

I  shall  pass  over,  however,  the  mighty  conflict  which  en- 
sued amongst  these  sovereigns,  and  treat  of  it  at  large,  in 
the  third  part  of  this  work,  and  continue  the  affairs  of  the 
south.  The  sudden  de  >th  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  gave  a 
new  turn  to  the  affairs  ,of  Spain,  and  placed  Charles  II.  in  a 


GRAND    ALLIANCE,  203 

new  dilemma ;  he  took  the  dernier  resort,  and  appealed  to 
the  pope  for  counsel. 

His  holiness,  dreading  the  power  of  Austria,  at  once  advised 
him  to  bestow  the  crown  of  Spain  upon  the.  family  of  Bourbon  : 
this  advice  was  positive,  and  positively  obeyed.  Charles,  by  a 
private  will,  annulled  his  former  will,  and  conveyed  the  crown 
of  Spain  to  the  duke  of  Anjou,  second  son  of  the  dauphin. 

During  these  intrigues,  Charles  died,  the  will  was  disclosed 
— Lewis  XIV.  at  once  accepted,  and  placed  his  grandson  up- 
on the  throne  of  Spain,  under  the  title  of  Philip  the  V.  then  a 
minor,  and  prepared  to  support  him.  This  accession  of 
strength  to  the  house  of  Bourbon,  already  considered  too  pow- 
erful for  the  peace  of  Europe,  and  during  the  alarming  reign  of 
Lewis  XIV.  was  considered  as  incompatible  with  the  interest 
and  safety  of  every  free  state.  It  roused  all  the  potentates 
in  the  south  to  the  protection  of  the  common  cause,  and  pro- 
duced the  grand  alliance  (so  called)  in  1701,  signed  by  the 
plenipotentiaries  of  the  emperor  of  Germany,  the  king  of 
England,  and  the  states'  general,  of  the  United  Provinces. 

The  grand  object  of  this  league  was  to  counteract  the  suc- 
cession of  the  house  of  Bourbon  to  the  crown  of  Spain  ;  and 
obtain  a  general  security  for  the  balance  of  power,  and  the 
peace  of  Europe  ;  with  a  reserve,  that  England  and  Holland 
might  retain  all  their  conquests  in  both  the  Indies.  The  op- 
erations of  the  grand  confederacy  in  the  north  against  Swe- 
den had  already  commenced,  and  were  now  in  their*full  op- 
eration. 

At  this  eventful  period,  James  II.  who  had  taken  refuge  in 
France,  died,  and  Louis  had  the  temerity  to  acknowledge  the 
son  of  James,  as  king  of  Great-Britain  and  Ireland,  under  the 
title  of  James  III.  This  struck  the  fatal  blow  to  the  peace 
of  Europe  ;  William  resented  the  indignity,  and  prepared 
for  action,  and  the  grand  confederacy  prepared  to  co-ope- 
rate. Lewis,  sensible  of  his  error,  attempted  to  pflliate  the 
blow  by  an  apology.  The  parliament  of  England  passed  a 
bill  of  attainder  against  the  young  prince,  James  III.  and  pre- 
pared to  support  the  dignity  of  the  crown. 

At  this  critical  juncture,  William  was  thrown  from  hi* 
horse,  and  received  a  contusion  which  occasioned  his  death  ; 
he  was  quietly  succeeded  by  queen  Anne,  eldest  surviving 
daughter  of  James  II.  1702.  She  entered  with  spirit  into 
the  measures  of  William,  in  support  of  the  grand  alliance,  and 
prepared  for  action. 

Lord  Godolphin  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  treasury, 


204  GENERAL    WAR. 

and  the  earl  of  Maryborough  at  the  head  of  the  armies ;  war 
was  declared  against  France  in  London,  the  Hague  and  Vien- 
na at  the  same  time.  The  protection  of  the  general  safety, 
rendered  a  union  of  interest  more  permanent  and  formidable 
in  this  compact,  than  in  any  that  Europe  had  ever  witnessed  ; 
and  although  Lewis  was  apparently  strengthened  by  the  un- 
ion of  the  crowns  of  France  and  Spain,  in  his  own  family  :  it 
proved  the  reverse,  and  Spain  was  only  a  burthen  on  his 
hands,  to  be  protected  at  home  and  abroad. 

The  gold  of  America  was  the  only  advantage  that  resulted 
to  him — and  this,  the  exhausted  state  of  his  treasury  very 
much  required.  The  earl  of  Marlborough  took  the  field  in 
Flanders,  as  commander  in  chief  ;  he  soon  acquired  the  title 
of  duke,  and  his  exploits  gave  a  lustre  to  the  arms  of  the  con- 
federates. 

The  successes  of  the  first  campaign,  led  the  duke  of  Savoy  j 
and  the  king  of  Portugal,  to  join  the  confederates,  1703  ;  al- 
though the  duke  was  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  grandson  of 
Lewis  XIII.  and  father-in-law  to  Philip  V.  the  young  king  of 
Spain.  This  union  of  the  duke  with  the  allies,  was  consider- 
ed by  Lewis  as  the  ruin  of  his  cause.  All  Europe,  from 
north  to  south  was  the  theatre  of  a  general  war,  and  divided 
into  two  great  parties.  In  the  south  under  the  grand  alli- 
ance, the  war  raged  in  Flanders,  in  Bavaria,  in  Spain,  in  Ita- 
ly, and  upon  the  ocean. 

An  insurrection  broke  out  in  Hungary,  which  penetrated 
to  the  gates  of  Vienna,  and  threatened  the  ruin  of  the  house 
of  Austria.  Feuds  sprang  up  in  Scotland,  founded  on  their 
resentment  against  king  William  for  neglecting  the  Scotch 
settlement  upon  the  isthmus  of  Darien  during  his  reign, 
whir.h  endangered  the  peace  of  England,  by  the  sharp  con- 
test between  whig  and  tory  factions. 

The  wnr  raged  in  1704  with  various  success  by  sea  and 
land  ;  but  the  conquest  of  Gibraltar  was  a  most  valuable  ac- 
quisition to  the  English.  This  year  the  emperor  Leopold 
di'M'l,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Joseph,  who  entered 
warmly  into  the  measure  of  the  alliance. 

In  1705  the  French  were  successful  in  Italy,  the  con- 
federates in  Spain.  The  war  raged  in  Germany  and 
Flanders  with  various  success,  but  nothing  decisive.  In 
1706  the  confederates  were  successful,  under  the  illus- 
trious Marlborough  in  Flanders,  and  in  Spain,  under  prince 
Charles,  who  entered  Madrid,  and  was  then  crowned  king  of 


CONFEDERATES    SUCCESSFUL.  205 

the  title  of  Charles  III. ;  but  wae  soon  compel- 
led to  retire. 

The  English  took  the  islands  of  Majorca  and  Ivica.  Lew- 
is XIV.  under  this  pressure  of  his  affairs,  had  recourse  to 
the  king  of  Sweden,  Charles  XII.  then  in  his  successful  ca- 
reer in  Poland  and  Saxony — but  without  effect  :  Charles  had 
set  his  face  for  Moscow. 

Lewis,  upon  this  failurersued  for  peace  ;  but  without  ef- 
fect— the  confederates  resolved,  "  that  no  peace  shall  be 
made  with  the  house  of  Bourboun,  so  long  as  a  prince  of  that 
house  is  on  the  throne  of  Spain."  The  successes  of  England 
in  Flanders,  the  conquest  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  isles  of  the 
Mediterranean,  gave  strength  to  the  crown,  and  confirmed 
that  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  which  has  since  proved 
so  salutary  to  the  two  kingdoms.  The  splendor  of  the  duke 
of  Marlborough  in  Flanders,  of  princ'e  Eugene  in  Italy,  and 
the  arch  duke  Charles  in  Spain,  gave  strength  and  spirit  to 
the  confederates  this  year,  and  humbled  the  pride  of  Lewis. 


CHAP.  XXXI. 

General  Affairs  of  Evrope  to  the  death  of  Lewis  XIV.  and 
the  suppression  of  the  insurrection  in  Scotland — Remarks. 

THE  exhausted  treasury  of  Lewis  XIV.  compelled  him  to 
desperate  measures  ;  he  ordered  bills  to  be  drawn  upon  his 
mint,  and  resolutely  prepared  for  action  ;  the  confederates 
where  triumphant  in  Italy,  and  the  French  abandoned  their 
conquests  by  a  convention — the  French  were  victorious  how- 
ever in  Spain,  at  the  battle  of  Almanzar,  and  the  prospects 
of  Philip  V.  stood  high. 

In  1707  prince  Eugene  and  the  duke  of  Savoy  penetrated 
into  France,  laid  seige  to  Toulon,  and  failed  ;  this  with  the 
successes  in  Spain,  and  feuds  which  sprang  up  in  the  coun- 
cils of  England,  revived  the  hopes  and  spirits  of  Lewis  ;  but 
the  success  of  the  confederates  in  Flanders  and  Italy,  and  the 
suppresion  of  the  feuds  in  the  English  cabinet,  together  with 
the  capture  of  Sardinia  and  Minorca,  by  the  English,  joined 
to  the  low  state  of  his  funds,  pressed  Louis  in  1708  to  make 
advantageous  overtures  of  peace  to  the  confederates.  These 

18 


206  WAR  CONTINUED. 

they  haughtily  rejected,  and  pushed  the  war  in  1709  with  re 
newed  vigour  and  success  in  Flanders. 

Louis  again  pressed  his  overtures  for  peace,  and  the  next 
year  conferences  were  appointed  at  Gertruydenburg.  Lewis 
made  concessions  at  this  conference  which  were  humiliating 
to  him,  and  served  to  flatter  the  pride,  and  raise  the  spirits, 
as  well  as  the  demands -of  the  confederates  :  they  rejected 
the  overtures,  broke  off  the  conferences,  and  took  the  field, 
with  renewed  success,  in  Flanders.  Charles  III.  entered 
Madrid  at  the  head  of  his  victorious  army  ;  but  was  soon  com- 
pelled to  restore  it  to  Philip  V.  ;  and  the  war  in  Spain  raged 
with  various  success. 

At  this  time  a  new  feud  sprang  up  in  the  councils  of  Eng- 
land, and  divided  the  champions  of  the  nation  ;  Godolphin 
and  Maryborough,  began  to  decline.  The  tories  cried  out 
danger  to  church  and  state,  and  the  pulpit  echoed  the  cry. 
This  produced  a  change  in  the  ministry  ;  Marlborough  sup- 
ported his  popularity  ;  but  Godolphin  was  succeeded  in  the 
treasury  by  Harly,  earl  of  Oxford.  This  feud  again  revived 
the  claims  of  the  pretender,  and  Godolphin  espoused  his 
cause  ;  but  the  tories  triumphed  in  a  new  parliament,  1710. 
This  year  the  arch  duke  Charles  succeeded  to  the  imperial 
throne,  upon  the  death  of  the  emperor  Joseph,  which  gave 
pome  check  to  the  bold  plans  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough. 
The  parliament  of  England  voted  liberal  supplies,  and  the 
war  was  pushed  with  vigour.  The  feuds  in  parliament  called 
forth  the  best  talents  of  the  nation  ;  a  dignified  speech  from 
the  queen,  would  have  quieted,  and  united  the  councils  of  the 
nation,  had  not  the  influence  of  Marlborough  produced  an 
overheated  zeal  in  the  house  of  lords,  and  effected  a  secret 
treaty  between  England  and  France,  which  however  destroy- 
ed his  popularity  and  command,  1711. 

The  treaty  fired  the  parties  of  England,  with  warmth  and 
bitterness — it  was  not  contended  by  the  whigs,  that  Spain 
could  have  been  conquered  at  that  time,  and  Charles  III. 
placed  upon  the  throne  of  Philip  V.  by  the  sword  ;  but  they 
did  contend,  that  under  the  existing  state  of  the  armies,  to- 
gether with  the  low  state  of  the  finances  of  Lewis,  the  con- 
federates under  Marlborough  in  Flanders,  might,  in  one  more 
campaign,  have  penetrated  to  Paris,  and  compelled  Lewis  to 
depose  his  grand-son,  Philip  V.  and  place  the  arch  duke  upon 
the  throne  of  Spain,  and  also  have  established  a  barrier  on  the 
north,  which  would  have  effectually  humbled  the  house  of 
Bourbon. 


PEACE    OF    UTRECHT.  207 

These  truths  the  whigs  in  England  realized,  these  truths 
the  confederates  all  realized,  and  were  severely  mortified  at 
their  disappointment.  They  made  great  efforts,  by  the  aid 
of  prince  Eugene,  (who  was  invited  by  the  whigs  over  into 
England  for  that  purpose,)  to  renew  the  confederacy,  and 
prosecute  the  war,  but  to  no  effect  :  the  tories  were  estab- 
lished, and  the  councils  firm  ;  and  conferences  for  a  general 
peace  were  opened  at  Utrecht. 

The  successive  deaths  of  several  of  the  princes  of  France, 
at  this  time,  increased  the  apprehension,  lest  the  crown  of 
France  and  Spain  should  be  united  in  one  head,  upon  the 
death  of  Lewis  ;  and  called  forth  all  the  energies  of  the  con- 
tracting parties,  to  guard  against  this,  by  positive  stipulation  : 
which  was,  ultimately,  though  reluctantly,  complied  with,  by 
Lewis,  and  he  guaranteed  the  renunciation  of  his  grandson, 
Philip  V.  to  all  claims  upon  the  crown  of  France.  This  pro- 
duced a  secret  cessation  of  arms  on  the  part  of  England, 
which  separated  the  English  forces  from  the  confederacy,  and 
an  open  avowal  of  the  treaty  ensued. 

The  Dutch,  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  kings  of  Portugal 
and  Spain,  followed  the  example  of  the  English  ;  and  the 
emperor  being  left  alone  in  the  war,  a  general  peace  was  con- 
cluded at  Utrecht,  and  the  storm  of  war  once  more  hushed 
in  the  south,  1713.  The  parties  ran  high  at  this  time,  in  Eng- 
land ;  it  became  now  well  understood,  that  not  only  Godol- 
phin,  the  ex-minister,  but  the  duke  of  Marlborough  himself, 
secretly  favoured  the  cause  of  the  pretender  ;  and  that  great 
efforts  were  made  to  induce  his  sister,  the  queen,  to  provide 
for  his  restoration. 

James  III.  was  a  violent  catholic,  and  as  obstinately  so  as 
his  father  :  this  roused  all  the  fears  of  the  protestants,  and 
when  united  with  the  feuds  produced  at  the  peace,  distracted 
the  nation. 

A  party,  called  Jacobites,  were  actually  engaged  to  restore 
the  pretender  :  this  called  forth  a  vote  of  parliament,  of 
one  hundred  thousand  pounds,  to  whoever  should  apprehend 
him  in  Great  Britain.  During  the  violence  of  these  meas- 
ures, Queen  Anne  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  George  I. 
elector  ef  Hanover  :  who  placed  the  w%gs  at  the  head  of  the 
administration,  commenced  a  general  inquiry  into  the  state 
of  the  nation,  and  the  negociations  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht, 
as  the  surest  means  of  quieting  the  parties,  and  establishing 
ais  throne  1714. 


208  DEATH    OF    LEWIS    XIV. 

In  the  midst  of  these  scenes,  died  Lewis  XIV.  king  of 
France,  who  was  succeeded  by  Lewis  XV.  then  a  minor  ;  arid 
the  government  of  France  fell  under  the  regency  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  1715.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  James  III.  (the 
pretender,)  and  secretly  co-operated  with  the  Jacobites  in 
England  and  Scotland,  to  eifect  his  restoration.  Great  pre- 
parations were  made  this  year,  for  the  reception  of  James  III. 
in  England  ;  and  the  Jacobites  invited  him  to  land  at  Plym- 
outh. A  general  insurrection  took  place  in  Scotland,  and 
these  hardy  sons  of  the  mountains,  who  boasted  that  they 
never  had  been  conquered,  tendered  their  services  to  James, 
in  support  of  his  claims  to  the  crown  of  England. 

This  formidable  conspiracy  in  Scotland  and  England,  cal« 
led  forth  the  energies  of  George  ;  and  the  kingdom  of  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  were  again  torn  with  the  distresses  of  a 
civil  war.  The  pretender  landed  in  Scotland  :  again  the  prot- 
estant  cause  was  triumphant — that  God  who  rides  on  the 
whirlwind  and  directs  the  storm,  appeared  in  support  of  the 
reformation.  The  struggle  was  short ;  the  fatal  battle  of 
Sherimnuir  decided  the  fate  of  the  pretender,  and  his  popish 
cause  forever  in  England ;  his  partisans  dispersed,  and  he  fled 
to  France.  A  few  executions  suppressed  the  rebellion,  re- 
stored the  tranquillity  of  the  nation,  and  established  the  throne. 

The  conflicting  passions,  which  had  harassed  and  distress- 
ed Europe,  in  the  south,  during  the  long  and  ambitious  reign 
of  Lewis  XIV.  were  once  more  hushed  into  a  general  calm. 
The  exhausted  state  of  finances,  throughout  these  kingdoms, 
rendered  a  general  peace  not  only  necessary  :  but  actually 
forbade  the  renewal  of  hostilities. 

France  was  content  to  secure  her  ancient  limits,  with  the 
acquisition  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  to  a  branch  of  the  house  of 
Bourbon.  England  had  secured  a  protestant  succession,  and 
the  .union  of  Scotland  ;  but  the  emperor  of  Germany  had  ob- 
tained no  adequate  compensation  for  the  blood  arid  treasure 
expended  in  the  war,  excepting  the  union  of  Hungary,  with 
the  house  of  Austria. 

Atthe  close  of  the  last  war,  by  the  peace  ofRyswick,  we 
turned  our  attention  slightly,  to  the  general  improvement  of 
manners,  literature  and  the  arts,  since  the  reigns  of  Charles 
V.  Frances  I.  and  Henry  VIII.  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century  :  let  us  now  take  a  view  of  the  changes,  which  the 
long  reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  produced,  in  the  relative  connec* 
tion  of  the  kingdoms  in  the  south  of  Europe. 


BALANCE   OF     POWER.  209 

ie  high  claims  and  pretensions,  which  marked  the  com- 
mencement of  the  reign  of  this  haughty,  overbearing  mon- 
arch, called  up  the  general  attention  of  the  nations  to  their 
common  safety,  and  led  them  to  enquire  into  the  principles  of 
their  common  interest  and  security.  These  principles  led 
Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  England  and  Holland  to  suspend  their 
private  interests  and  views,  together  with  their  private  piques, 
and  objects  of  ambition,  and  form  one  grand  confederacy,  to 
check  the  high  menacing  ambition  of  France.  The  success- 
es of  this  coalition  were  displayed  in  the  peace  of  Ryswick. 

When  the  intrigues  of  Lewis  to  accomplish  the  union  of 
the  crowns  of  France  and  Spain,  upon  the  death  of  Charles 
II.  again  threatened  to  commit  the  peace  of  Europe,  and  de- 
stroy the  general  interest,  which  the  peace  of  Ryswick  had 
secured — again  the  southern  kingdoms  coalesced,  first  under 
the  triple  alliance,  and  then  generally  ;  humbled  the  gigantic 
power  of  France,  reduced  her  to  the  last  extremity,  severed 
the  union  then  contemplated,  by  express  stipulation  ;  and  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht,  guaranteed  to  Europe  a  balance  of  power, 
which  remained  undisturbed  down  to  the  French  revolution. 

Thus  we  see,  how  from  the  private  quarrels  of  individuals 
in  the  early  ages,  of  neighboring  chiefs,  of  neighboring  and  ri- 
val cities,  of  neighboring  states,  or  kingdoms,  either  separate- 
ly, or  with  private  alliances  to  promote,  or  check  ambition, 
the  nations  of  Europe  have  become  one  great  family,  with 
separate  views  ;  but  one  great  union  of  interest,  founded  up- 
on that  balance  of  power,  which  they  have  effected  by  their 
great  coalitions,  and  which  has  become  inseparably  interwo- 
ven, not  only  with  the  general  safety  and  tranquillity,  but 
with  their  very  existence,  as  independent  states  and  sove- 
reignties. 


CHAP.  XXXII. 


Europe,  from  the  commencement  of  the  quadruple  alliance,  to 
the  accession  of  Francis  I.  of  Austria. 

WHEN  the  mighty  struggle  of  ambition  which  called  forth 
the  triple  alliance,  and  in  succession  involved  all  the  south  of 
Europe  in  a  distressing  and  eventful  war,  to  prevent  the  un- 
ion of  the  crowns  of  France  and  Spain,  in  the  house  of  Bour- 

18* 


QUADRUPLE    ALLIANCE. 

bon  had  been  so  successfully  closed  ;  when  Lewis  XIV.  the 
author  of  this  mighty  struggle,  had  guaranteed  an  eternal  ex- 
clusion, to  the  union  of  the  two  crowns  in  the  house  of 
Bourbon,  in  order  to  restore  that  tranquillity  which  his  ambi- 
tion had  disturbed,  by  exciting  a  war  which  he  could  no  long- 
er maintain,  and  to  guarantee  to  his  grandson  Philip  V.  the 
quiet  possession  of  the  crown  of  Spain  :  when  Philip  had 
voluntarily  sanctioned  the  measures  of  Lewis,  his  grandfath- 
er, and  was  quietly  enjoying  all  that  he  possessed,  or  could 
in  honor  or  justice  claim  :  when  all  the  contracting  parties 
were  contentedly  enjoying  that  quiet,  which  the  great  inter- 
est of  Europe  required  and  demanded,  after  so  long  and  ardu- 
ous struggles  as  she  had  experienced,  during  the  long  reign 
of  Lewis  XIV.  :  it  was  to  have  been  expected,  that  a  repose 
so  desirable,  might  have  been  continued. 

What  shall  we  say,  when  we  announce,  that  the  same  spir- 
it of  ambition  which  fired  the  breast  of  Lewis,  inflamed  the 
heart  of  Philip  V.  and  led  him  to  light  again  the  torch  of  war, 
by  his  intrigues  to  obtain  the  regency  of  France,  during  the 
minority  of  Lewis  XV.  and  thereby  secure  the  union  of  the 
two  crowns  of  France  and  Spain.  Although  the  conspirators 
were  discovered  in  the  house  of  Bourbon,  and  duly  punish- 
ed, and  the  duke  of  Orleans  more  firmly  established  in  the 
regency  ;  the  powers  of  Europe  resented  this  outrage,  and 
England,  France,  Holland  and  Germany,  under  the  quadru- 
ple alliance,  (so  called)  declared  war  against  Spain  in  1718. 

The  French  invaded  Spain  on  the  northern  frontier  :  the 
English  triumphed  over  the  Spanish  fleet,  and  took  the  isl- 
ands of  Sicily  and  Sardinia  :  Philip  complied  with  the  terms 
prescribed,  disgraced  his  minister,  and  sued  for  peace. 

At  this  time,  the  famous  Mississippi  scheme  appeared  in 
France,  and  through  the  infatuating  spirit  of  John  Law,  ruin- 
ed their  system  of  finance,  and  spread  distress  through  the 
nation.  The  same  spirit  spread  into  England,  and  blew  up 
what  was  called  the  south  sea  bubble,  and  produced  the  same 
effects  upon  the  funds,  and  upon  the  nation,  as  the  scheme  of 
Law  had  produced  in  France.  These  damped  the  spirit  for 
war  in  the  two  nations  ;  the  operations  of  the  alliance  lan- 
guished ;  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  in  the  year  1723, 
paved  the  way  for  peace,  by  the  treaties  of  Vienna  and  Han- 
over, 1795  ;  which  was  finally  settled  by  the  peace  of  Se- 
ville, in  1727. 


GENERAL    PEACE.  241 

Pending  these  negotiations,  died  George  I.  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  George  II.  Under  this  succession,  parties 
ran  high  in  England  ;  corruption,  jealousy  and  strife,  dis- 
tracted the  councils  of  the  nation.  During  these  struggles  in 
England,  died  Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  1733  ;  and  Lewis 
XV.  of  France,  now  on  the  throne,  engaged  with  Spain  and 
Sardinia,  in  a  war  against  the  emperor  of  Germany,  to  recov- 
er the  crown  of  Poland  for  his  father-in-law,  Stanislaus  Leck- 
zinski,  who  once  held  it  under  the  favor  and  protection  of 
Charles  XII.  king  of  Sweden,  by  usurpation,  and  had  fallen, 
and  fled  to  France  upon  the  restoration  of  Augustus.  The 
French  invaded  Germany  and  Italy  with  such  success,  that 
the  emperor  sued  for  peace.  Lewis  relinquished  his  claims 
on  the  crown  of  Poland,  and  obtained  for  Stanislaus  the 
duchy  of  Lorrain,  with  its  cession  to  France,  upon  the  death 
of  Stanislaus,  and  peace  was  concluded,  1736. 

During  the  distressing  wars  in  Europe,  for  the  last  century, 
the  commerce,  and  collonial  possessions  of  England,  France, 
Spain  and  Holland,  rapidly  progressed  in  North  and  South 
America,  and  both  the  Indies,  and  became  the  source  of  that 
wealth,  by  which  these  powers  were  enabled  to  equip  such 
vast  fleets,  and  raise  and  support  such  vast  armies. 

Although  war  was  the  means  of  increasing  and  prolonging 
the  distresses  of  the  nations,  it  became  the  instrument  of  en- 
couraging and  promoting  the  arts  and  sciences,  of  softening 
and  polishing  their  ferocity  of  manners,  of  disseminating  the 
principles  of  toleration  in  religion,  and  thereby  establishing 
the  reformation  upon  a  more  permanent  basis. 

During  this  period  of  commercial  spirit  and  enterprise,  the 
strife,  and  conflicting  interests  of  England  and  Spain,  led 
them  into  a  commercial  war,  in  1739.  This  war  became  a 
war  of  plunder  :  The  English  exerted  all  their  force  to  aug- 
ment their  maritime  strength  ;  to  plunder  and  rifle  the 
Spanish  commerce,  particularly  those  ships  laden  with  the 
treasures  of  Peru. 

They  seized  on  the  most  wealthy  commercial  ports  of 
Spain,  in  South  America,  and  under  various  successes,  were 
enriched  with  the  spoils  of  war  ;  particularly  by  the  capture 
of  a  Spanish  galleon,  off  the  coast  of  Chili,  in  1744,  by  lord 
Air  on,  who  traversed  the  great  Pacific  with  his  prize,  visited 
India,  returned  to  England  by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  landed  his  treasure,  where  it  was  carried  in  great- 
triumph,  arid  deposited  in  the  tower. 


212  MARIA    THERESA. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  war,  died  the  last  prince  of 
the  house  of  Austria,  Charles  VI.  This  death  opened  a  new 
field  for  the  powers  of  Europe.  The  treaty  of  Seville,  which 
closed  the  war  of  the  quadruple  alliance  against  Spain — con- 
templating the  exposed  situation  of  the  house  of  Austria,  and 
anticipating  the  claims  that  would  commence  upon  the  death 
of  the  emperor,  Charles  VI.  guaranteed  by  a  general  confed- 
Oration,  the  right  of  succession  to  Maria  Theresa,  eldest 
daughter  of  Charles  VI.  and  then  wife  of  Francis,  duke  of 
Lorrain.  Maria  Theresa  was  acknowledged  by  all  the  states 
of  Austria,  and  soon  Became  extremely  popular. 

At  this  time  a  secret  league  took  place,  between  Lewis 
XV.  Frederic  III.  king  of  Prussia,  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria, 
to  divide  the  Austrian  dominions.  The  king  of  Prussia  opened 
the  war  upon  Silesia,  and  soon  placed  his  standard  on  the 
walls  of  Breslaw,  the  capital.  The  forces  of  France  entered 
Germany,  formed  a  junction  with  the  elector,  in  Bavaria,  and 
penetrated  to  Vienna.  The  empress  retired  to  Presburg,  in- 
Hungary,  where,  by  her  artful  address,  she  roused  up  the  zeal 
and  spirit  of  the  nation,  under  old  count  Palfy,  who  soon  ap- 
peared for  the  relief  of  Vienna.*  The  allies  did  not  wait  his 
approach,  but  filed  off  into  Bohemia,  invested,  and  took 
Prague,  and  crowned  the  elector  of  Bavaria  king  of  Bohemia ; 
from  thence  he  proceeded  to  Frankfort,  and  was  crowned  em- 
peror, under  the  title  of  Charles  VII.  1742. 

The  gigantic  strides  of  France,  the  dangerous  state  of  Aus- 
tria, and  general  interest  of  Germany,  that  engrossed  the  at- 
tention of  George  I.  together  with  the  good  effects  which  re- 
sulted to  the  allies  from  the  connection  between  England  and 
Austria,  in  humbling  the  pride  of  Lewis  XIV.  induced  George 
II.  to  espouse  with  warmth  and  zeal,  the  cause  of  Maria 
Theresa. 

George  carried  with  him  the  spirit  of  his  people  :  he  de- 

*  This  address  of  the  empress  is  worthy  of  record.  When  the  em- 
press had  assembled  the  states  of  Hungary,  she  appeared  at  their  head, 
arid  bearing  her  eldest,  and  her  infant  son  in  her  arms,  thus  addressed 
them  :  "  Abandoned  by  my  friends,  persecuted  by  my  enemies,  and 
attacked  by  my  nearest  relations,  I  have  no  resource  left,  but  in  your 
fidelity  and  valor.  On  you  alone,  I  depend  for  relief;  and  into  your 
hands  I  commit  the  son  of  your  sovereign,  and  my  just  cause."  Fired 
with  indignation  and  rage,  they  drew  their  swords,  and  with  tears  of 
zeal  and  compassion,  they  exclaimed:  "  We  will  die  for  our  king." 
The  nobility  were  instantly  in  arms,  and  at  the  head  of  thirty  thousand 
men. 


TREATY    OF    WORMS.  213 

posed  his  opposing  ministry  ;  filled  their  places  with  such  as 
were  ready  to  second  his  views  ;  his  parliament  liberally 
granted  supplies,  and  George  assembled  an  army  in  Flanders 
of  36, 000  men;  the  Austrians  penetrated  into  Bavaria,  and 
took  Munich. 

At  this  critical  moment,  the  court  of  France  were  struck, 
as  with  a  clap  of  thunder,  by  the  tidings  of  the  treaty  ofBres- 
faw,  and  peace  between  Prussia  and  Austria. 

The  allies  were  closely  invested  in  Prague,  and  their  fate 
considered  as  desperate.  The  French,  on  the  Rhine,  made  an 
effort  to  relieve  Prague,  butit  failed  :  the  duke  De  Belleisle, 
however  by  an  artful  movement,  stole  a  march  upon  the  be- 
siegers, abandoned  Prague,  and  led  back  his  army,  with  all 
his  baggage  and  artillery,  to  the  banks  of  the  Rhine. 

Spain,  in  alliance  with  France,  pushed  the  war  in  Italy, 
with  such  success,  as  to  rouse  up  the  king  of  Sardinia  to  an 
alliance  with  the  empress,  and  king  of  England,  and  the  war 
raged  by  sea  and  land.  Atthe  commencement  of  17.43,  the 
French  sued  for  peace — the  allies  refused.  This  artful  poli- 
cy kindled  afresh  the  feuds  of  opposition  in  the  British  par- 
liament;  George  reinforced  his  army  in  Flanders,  and  took 
the  field  in  person.  This  occasioned  such  suspicious  move- 
ments, particularly  at  the  battle  of  Dettingen,  as  damped  the 
spirit  of  the  allies,  and  caused  the  British  general,  the  earl  of 
Stain  to  resign  in  disgust. 

The  treaty  of  Worms,  between  the  arch  duchess,  Maria 
Theresa,  and  the  king  of  Sardinia,  strengthened  her  pros- 
pects ;  but  her  imperious  deportment  led  several  German 
princes  to  negotiate  with  the  new  emperor,  Charles  VII.  at 
Frankfort. 

These  movements  called  forth  a  secret  treaty  at  Fountain- 
bleau,  between  France  and  Spain,  to  recover  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  at  the  same  time  all  the  old  in- 
trigues for  the  restoration  of  the  pretender  were  renewed,  and 
correspondences  opened  between  England,  Scotland  and 
France  ;  an  army  of  fifteen  thousand  men  assembled  in 
France,  under  the  celebrated  count  Saxe,  and  actually  em- 
barked for  England,  to  restore  the  pretender.  This  diversion 
failed,  and  was  defeated  by  violent  storms,  and  all  further 
movements  were  prevented  by  a  superior  British  fleet,  1744. 

The  various  operations,  and  various  successes  of  the  par- 
ties through  this  year  and  the  next,  in  Flanders,  Italy,  Spain 
and  Germany,  are  too  numerous  and  complicated  for  detail  ; 


214 


CHARLES    III.    IN    SCOTLAND. 


suffice  it  to  say,  that  at  the  close  of  the  year  1745,  all  the 
contending  powers  were  hushed  to  peace,  excepting  France 
and  Austria  :  and  the  husband  of  Maria  Theresa  was  crown- 
ed emperor,  under  the  title  of  Francis  I. 

The  successes  of  this  war,  strengthened  and  confirmed 
that  mutual  dependence  and  support,  which  the  other  alliance 
had  encouraged,  between  Great-Britain  and  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria. As  it  proved  to  be  then,  so  it  has  continued  to  be  to 
this  day,  the  great  barrier  against  the  overbearing  ambition, 
and  the  gigantic  strides  of  France. 


CHAP.  XXXIII. 

Europe,  from  ike  accession  of  George  II.  of  England  to  the 
confederacy  against  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  war  of  1756. 

THE  violent  opposition  to  the  continental  war,  which  dis- 
tracted the  British  councils,  at  the  accession  of  George  II. 
and  rendered  a  change  of  ministry  so  necessary,  went  into 
retirement  with  the  ex-ministers,  and  laid  the  foundation  for 
that  faction,  which  promoted  and  encouraged  the  return  of 
the  pretender,  to  seize  on  the  crown  of  England.  This  spirit 
spread  into  Scotland,  that  hot-bed  of  rebellion,  where  an  in- 
surrection was  soon  in  readiness  to  receive  the  pretender, 
and  place  him  upon  the  English  throne,  in  1745, 

Fired  with  these  expectations,  together  with  the  flattering 
prospects  from  France,  Charles  III.  son  of  James  III.  em- 
barked from  France,  and  landed  in  Scotland  unattended,  and 
unsupported  ;  (his  supplies  from  France  having  been  blown 
back  and  blockaded,  as  before  observed.)  The  Scottish 
chiefs  rallied  round  his  standard  and  marched  into  England 
with  apparent  success,  but  were  soon  compelled  to  retire  into 
Scotland,  where  Charles  enjoyed  for  a  few  days,  the  pride  of 
mock  majesty  ;  fought  the  fatal  battle  of  Culloden,  deserted 
his  standard  and  his  friends  ;  left  them  to  their  fate,  and  re- 
tired to  France. 

The  severity  of  the  government,  in  punishing  the  insur- 
gent chiefs,  and  stripping  them  of  their  hereditary  jurisdic- 
tion, throughout  the  highlands,  humbled  this  rebellious  spirit 
in  Scotland,  and  secured  the  crown  of  England  against  all  fu- 
ture claims  from  the  pretender. 


DEATH    OF   PHILIP    V.  215 

The  war  which  continued  on  the  continent  between 
France  and  Austria,  was  rendered  illustrious  in  Flanders,  un- 
der marshal  Saxe,  by  his  successes  in  this  campaign  ;  but  the 
campaign  in  Italy  was  closed  with  various  success  in  1746. 

The  treaty  of  Fontainbleau,  between  France  and  Spain, 
was  violated  by  a  secret  treaty,  between  France  and  the  king 
of  Sardinia,  which  roused  the  Spanish  jealousy,  and  distract- 
ed the  operations  in  Italy  ;  at  this  critical  juncture  died 
Philip  the  V.  The  government  of  Spain  devolved  upon  the 
queen — but  Ferdinand  VI.  the  son  of  Philip  V.  succeeded  to 
the  throne. 

The  cause  of  France  and  Spain,  soon  became  desperate  in 
Italy — they  retired  to  Genoa,  but  were  soon  compelled  to 
abandon  that  city  to  her  fate,  and  retire  into  France.  The 
military  exactions  which  the  ^ustrians  enforced  upon  Genoa, 
humbled,  and  almost  ruined  that  haughty  republic  ;  yet  left 
them  a  spirit,  which  roused  up  and  repelled  their  oppressive 
conquerors,  and  recovered  their  liberty.  This  closed  the 
campaign.  The  French,  at  the  same  time  threatened  Hano- 
ver ;  this  caused  a  secret  treaty  between  England  and  Prus- 
sia, and  a  subsidary  treaty  between  England  and  Russia. 
Thus  arrayed,  the  parties  prepared  for  action. 

George  II.  published  a  spirited  manifesto.  The  king  of 
Prussia  penetrated  into  Saxony,  took  Dresden,  and  compel- 
led Augustus  III.  king  of  Poland,  to  take  refuge  with  his  army. 

He  next  penetrated  into  Bohemia,  with  apparent  success, 
under  desperate  conflicts,  at  the  same  time  the  capture  of  the 
whole  Saxon  army,  opened  his  way  to  fall  back  into  Saxony, 
and  take  up  his  winter  quarters  at  Dresden. — Here  he  dis- 
covered the  plan  of  the  allies,  to  divide  up  his  kingdom  ; 
particularly  Austria,  Russia  and  Saxony,  and  preparations 
were  made  to  open  the  campaign  with  vigor. 

France  opened  the  campaign,  by  a  movement  of  eighty 
thousand  men,  to  invade  the  electorate  of  Hanover,  and  at 
the  same  time  sent  a  small  force  into  Germany,  to  co-operrte 
with  Austria.  George  II.  entered  with  zeal  into  the  war,  dis- 
graced his  opposing  ministry,  and  strengthened  his  cause,  by 
appointing  his  friends,  and  sent  the  duke  of  Cumberland  into 
Germany,  to  defend  Hanover,  at  the  head  of  forty  thousand 
men.  The  Russians  prepared  to  co-operate  with  Austria. 

The  king  of  Prussia  anticipated  all  their  movements,  enter- 
ed Bohemia  in  four  divisions,  triumphed  over  one  Austrian 
army,  united  his  forces,  triumphed  over  the  main  body  of  the 


216  BOHEMIA    ftVACUATED. 

Austrian  forces  in  Bohemia,  and  invested  them  in  Prague 
Elated  with  the  successes  of  this  victory,  with  too  much  confi- 
dence, he  detached  a  part  of  his  army  to  check  old  marsh; 
Daun,  and  soon  followed  in  person  with  another  detachment 

These  two  great  champions  of  the  age  met,  and  a  battl 
ensued  ;  the  carnage  of  20,000  men  witnessed  the  valor  ar 
obstinacy  of  the  conflict  ;  both  sides  claimed  the  victory 
The  king  of  Prussia  retired,  raised  the  siege  of  Prague,  am 
evacuated  Bohemia.     The  remarks  which  have  fallen  froi 
the  pens  of  some  of  the  greatest  captains,  in  marking  the 
errors  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  at  this  critical  juncture,  and 
showing  how  he  might  not  only  have  remedied  his  misfor- 
tunes, but  have  triumphed  over  marshal  Daun,  are  too  len- 
gthy for  this  work. 

It  must  be  evident  at  first  view,  to  every  reader,  that  the 
successes  of  the  king,  had  inspired  him  with  too  much  self- 
confidence,  and  too  much  contempt  for  his  enemies,  and  that 
this  caused  his  loss  of  Bohemia. 

At  this  critical  state  of  the  king,  the  Russians  entered  Prus- 
sia on  the  north,  with  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand  men, 
and  triumphed  over  one  of  his  best  generals,  in  a  signal  vic- 
tory ;  the  contest  was  sharp  and  desperate,  the  spirit  of  the 
Prussian  charge,  was  received  by  the  Russians  upon  the  point 
of  the  bayonet,  which  displayed  the  firmness  of  their  charac- 
ter and  discipline  ;  the  Prussians  retired  with  great  loss. 
The  valor  and  firmness  of  the  Russians  had  not  been  experi- 
enced in  the  south,  at  that  day  ;  and  this  war  opened  a  field 
for  the  cultivation  of  their  discipline,  and  laid  the  foundation 
for  such  future  operations  as  have  been  witnessed. 

The  English  made  some  diversion  on  the  coast  of  France 
this  year,  but  without  effect  ;  and  the  French  seized  on  the 
English  settlement  of  Madras,  in  the  East  Indies,  which  clos- 
ed the  naval  operations  of  this  year,  1747.  The  campaign 
was  opened  the  next  year,  by  a  great  accession  of  strength  to 
all  the  parties,  and  the  arms  of  France  were  again  rendered 
illustrious  in  Flanders  under  marshal  Saxe  ;  they  overran  all 
the  low  conn-tries,  and  threatened  Holland.  The  general 
alarm  roused  Tip  the  spirit  of  the  Dutch ;  they  invested  the 
prince  of  Orange,  with  the  title  of"  stadtholder,  captain  gen- 
eral and  commander  in  chief  of  all- the  United  Provinces  ;" 
and  made  vigorous  efforts  to  defend  their  country. 

The  illustrious  marshal  Saxe  triumphed  over  all  opposi- 
tion ;  and  with  the  failof  Bergen-op-zoom,  (the  key  of  Dutch 


CONGRESS    ©P    AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.  217 

Brabant,)  became  master  of  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt. 
The  allied  house  of  Bourbon  were  again  unsuccessful,  in  all 
their  efforts  in  Italy  this  year.  The  triumph  of  England  in 
1748,  over  the  navies  and  commerce  of  France,  by  the  cap- 
ture of  twelve  ships  of  the  line,  and  fifty  East  and  West  In- 
dia merchantmen,  struck  a  severe  blow  to  the  spirits  of  Lewis 
XV.  and  called  his  attention  to  a  peace. 

This  year  opened  with  a  general  congress  at  Aix-la-cha- 
pelle.  The  affairs  of  Lewis,  although  so  highly  successful  in 
Flanders,  had  now  become  desperate  :  the  ruin  of  his  com- 
merce and  navy,  cut  off  the  resources  of  his  treasury  ;  the 
failure  of  his  hopes  in  Italy — the  appointment  of  the  grand 
duke,  emperor,  and  thereby  defeating  the  prime  object  of  the 
war,  in  establishing  the  claims  of  the  arch  duchess  Maria  The- 
resa ;  the  treaty  of  Breslaw,  which  detached  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia from  the  confederacy  ;  the  new  powers  of  the  stadthold- 
er,  which  presented  a  formidable  barrier  on  the  part  of  Hol- 
land ;  but  above  all  the  high  state  of  the  English  funds,  their 
liberality,  particularly  in  subsidizing  the  empress  of  Russia, 
and  at  the  same  time  despatching  a  powerful  fleet  to  the  East 
Indies,  to  recover  Madras,  and  redeem  Pondicherry — all 
pressed  Lewis  to  efforts  for  peace.  A  cessation  of  arms  soon 
ensued,  and  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  soon  closed  the 
sanguinary  conflict,  1748. 

In  this  peace,  the  treaties  of  Westphalia,  Rysa,  &c.  were 
confirmed  ;  all  conquests  were  restored,  the  accession  of  the 
arch  duchess  confirmed,  and  the  guarantee  of  the  pragmatic 
sanction  renewed  by  all  the  former  contracting  parties,  and 
all  things  remained  in  statu  quo,  except  the  acquisition  of  Si- 
lesia to  the  king  of  Prussia. 

This  war  is  generally  considered,  as  a  useless,  wanton  waste 
of  blood  and  treasure  for  no  adequate  purpose. — This  is  strict- 
ly true,  so  far  as  it  regarded  France  and  Spain  :  but  far  dif- 
ferent with  England  :  this  war  established  the  superiority  of 
the  English  navy  and  commerce,  confirmed  the  policy  of  the 
two  former  wars,  of  wasting  the  treasure,  and  humbling  the 
house  of  Bourbon  by  continental  alliances,  whilst  England 
bestowed  her  whole  attention  upon  her  navy,  her  commerce, 
and  her  colonies  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  in  North 
America,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  all  her  future  greatness. 
The  fruits  of  this  war,  saved  her  North  American  colonies. 

The  most  flattering  prospects  of  general  tranquillity  in  Eu- 
rope, succeeded  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  continued. 

19 


218  CAPTURE    OF    MINORCA. 

with  the  exception  of  some  feuds  and  intrigues  in  the  courts 
of  England,  France  and  Spain,  down  to  the  year  1756.  Dur- 
ing this  period,  some  strife  and  intrigues  sprang  up,  between 
the  settlements  of  England  and  France  in  the  East  Indies  ; 
but  nothing  decisive,  and  a  treaty  settled  their  claims. 

In  1754,  some  collisions  commenced  between  the  English 
and  French  colonies  in  North  America,  which  continued,  and 
were  interwoven  with  the  seven  years  war,  which  commenced 
in  1756,  and  which  raged  generally  in  Europe.  The  opera- 
tions of  this  war  in  America,  I  shall  defer,  arid  consider  in  the 
general  history  of  America. 

The  English  took  advantage  of  these  collisions  in  Ameri- 
ca, and  commenced  general  depredations  upon  the  commerce 
of  France,  and  captured  more  than  three  hundred  sail  of 
merchant  ships  :  at  the  same  time  commenced  their  intrigues 
upon  the  continent. 

The  state  of  the  French  funds,  led  the  court  of  Lewis  XV, 
to  anew  system  of  policy  ;  he  bore  the  depredations  of  the 
English,  without  making  reprisals — he  remembered  the  per- 
fidy of  the  king  of  Prussia,  in  deserting  the  confederates  by 
the  treaty  of  Breslaw  ;  he  also  remembered  the  cause  of  re- 
sentment the  house  of  Austria  justly  entertained  against  that 
prince,  for  his  alliance  with  France,  to  oppose  the  claims 
of  the  arch  duchess,  and  for  the  acquisition  of  Silesia,  which 
he  obtained  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

He  felt  the  ascendency  which  George  the  II.  had  obtained 
in  the  two  last  wars,  by  his  continental  influence  ;  this  he  as- 
cribed to  his  power,  as  elector  of  Hanover.  Lewis  cherish- 
ed the  resentment  of  the  house  of  Austria,  against  the  king  of 
Prussia,  and  the  two  powers  formed  an  alliance  to  punish  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  divide  up  his  dominions  ;  they  had  the 
address  to  unite  Russia  and  Sweden  in  this  confederacy,  and 
the  war  commenced  by  the  invasion  of  Minorca,  by  the 
French,  which  was  carried,  through  the  defection  of  the  Brit- 
ish admiral  Byng. 

A  general  exultation  reigned  in  France,  and  a  general  de- 
spondency in  England,  and  their  former  high  martial  spirit, 
now  tamely  submitted  to  the  introduction  of  German  troops 
into  England,  to  repel  a  threatened  invasion  from  France. 
1757. 


WAR   IN    PRUSSIA    OF    1756.  219 

CHAP.  XXXIV. 

General  affairs  of  the  seven  years  war  in  Europe,  to  the  peace 
of  Paris,   1763. 

DURING  the  operations  in  Bohemia  and  Prussia,  the  duke 
of  Cumberland  retired  before  the  French  under  the  marshal 
De  Etress,  took  refuge  under  the  cannon  ot  Stade,  and  saved 
his  army,  by  signing  the  convention  of  Closterseven,  aban- 
doning Hanover  to  the  French  arms,  and  retiring  to  Eng- 
land. This  occasioned  a  new  revolution  in  the  cabinet  of 
George  IT.  :  the  ex-minister  was  restored,  and  some  diversion 
planned  and  executed  against  the  coast  of  France  ;  but  with- 
out success. 

By  these  misfortunes  in  Europe  together  with  some  losses 
in  America,  the  English  felt  sensibly  their  disgrace  ;  when 
the  spirit  of  the  nation  was  relieved  by  a  favourable  turn  in 
their  affairs,  a  successful  recovery  of  their  former  losses, 
with  some  valuable  acquisitions  in  the  East  Indies,  and  an 
exaction  of  two  millions,  to  indemnify  the  expenses  of  the 
war. 

The  losses  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  constrained  him  to  act 
on  the  defensive.  The  allied  French  and  Austrians,  invaded 
Saxony,  and  summoned  Leipsic.  The  king  advanced  to  meet 
them  ;  a  battle  ensued  ;  the  king  was  victorious  and  the 
allies  retired.  Old  mareschal  Daun,  at  the  same  time  ad- 
vanced into  Silesia,  invested  Schweidnitz,  and  carried  it  by 
storm  ;  attacked  and  subdued  the  prince  of  Bevern,  took  him 
prisoner,  and  entered  Breslaw. 

The  king  flew  to  the  relief  of  Silesia,  united  his  scattered 
forces,  and  prepared  for  action.  Mareschal  Daun,  and  prince 
Charles,  advanced  to  meet  the  king,  with  the  same  spirits, 
that  led  the  king  into  his  misfortunes  in  Bohemia,  viz.  :  too 
much  self  confidence  ;  and  they  in  their  turn  experienced  the 
same  misfortune. 

The  king  met  the  allies  at  Luthen,  strongly  posted,  and 
awaiting  his  attack.  Here  was  exhibited  the  decisive  advan- 
tage of  Prussian  tactics  and  dicipline,  over  the  superior  for- 
ces and-position  of  the  allies.  • 

The  king  commenced  the  attack,  by  a  movement  on  the 
right  of  the  enemy's  position  ;  and  when  mareschal  Daun 
had  weakened  his  left,  to  support  his  right,  the  king  by  amas- 
ferly  display  to  the  right,  fell  with  his  whole  force  upon  their 


220 


WAR    CONTINUED. 


left :  the  battle  was  decisive,  the  carnage  was  great  ;  the  al- 
lies were  driven  from  their  commanding  position,  and  the 
king  followed  up  his  victory  ;  the  allies  retired  out  of  Silesia, 
and  the  king  entered  Breslaw  in  triumph. 

The  successes  of  the  king,  set  the  example  to  all  his  gene- 
rals, and  the  Russians  and  Swedes,  were  soon  driven  out  of 
Prussia.  These  glorious  successes  of  the  king  of  Prussia, 
inspired  his  friends  with  fresh  confidence,  and  roused  up  the 
electorate  of  Hanover,  to  assert  their  liberties.  George  II. 
placed  the  duke  of  Brunswick  at  their  head,  and  by  his  suc- 
cessful valour,  he  compelled  the  French  to  retire  out  of  Hano- 
ver, and  repass  the  Rhine.  These  spirited  measures  in  Prus- 
sia and  Hanover,  inspired  the  cabinet  of  George  with  fresh 
confidence,  and  led  his  minister,  Mr.  Pttt,  to  say,  that  Ameri- 
ca must  be  saved  in  Europe,  and  that  the  king  of  Prussia 
must  be  supported. 

A  new  treaty  was  negotiated  with  the  king  of  Prussia,  and 
the  parliament  were  liberal  in  their  supplies  for  the  war.  A 
change  took  place  in  the  French  ministry,  and  the  war  raged 
upon  the  Rhine  with  various  success.  During  these  opera- 
tions, the  king  of  Prussia  advanced  in  pursuit  of  mareschal 
Daun  ;  penetrated  into  Moravia,  and  laid  seige  to  Olmutz. 

Upon  the  intelligence  that  the  Russians  had  entered  Bran- 
denburg, he  raised  the  seige  of  Olmutz,  retired  in  the  face  of 
that  old  hero,  and  returned  into  Prussia — met  the  Russians, 
and  after  a  terrible  conflict  and  carnage,  he  triumphed  over 
them  in  the  battle  of  Zorndorf :  the  Russians  retired  into  Po- 
land, and  the  king,  by  a  masterly  movement,  again  appeared 
in  Saxony,  for  the  relief  of  his  brother,  against  the  imperial 
and  Austrian  armies  :  the  latter  under  old  mareschal  Daun. 
A.  desperate  action  ensued,  the  king  retired — but  gained  his 
purpose,  and  was  not  pursued. 

He  passed  again  into  Silesia  ;  expelled  the  Austrians,  re- 
turned into  Saxony  ;  compelled  mareschal  Daun  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Dresden,  and  entered  it  in  triumph.  The  splendid 
and  triumphant  displays  of  the  arms  of  the  king  of  Prussia, 
together  with  several  successful  diversions  of  England,  on 
the  coast  of  France,  and  the  triumphant  display  of  the  Eng- 
lish flag  in  the  British  channel,  gave  a  new  aspect  to  the  af- 
fairs of  Europe,  and  closed  the  campaign  of  1758,  gloriously. 

The  successes  of  the  last  season,  enabled  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia, to  open  the  next  campaign,  with  a  train  of  splendid  success- 
es, against  the  Russians  in  Poland,  ;  against  the  Swede  in  Po- 


WAR    CONTINUED.  22J 

id  against  the  Austrians  in  Silesia,  Bohemia  and 
Franconia.  These,  together  with  his  plan  of  operation  with 
the  duke  of  Brunswick,  gave  promising  assurances  of  a  spee- 
dy issue  to  the  war  :  when  a  sudden  reverse  of  fortune,  blast- 
ed all  his  fair  prospects,  and  gave  a  new  turn  to  the  opera- 
tions of  the  campaign. 

The  French  penetrated  into  Germany  with  splendid  suc- 
cess, and  again  threatened  Hanover  ;  the  duke  of  Brunswick 
retired  to  the  confines  of  the  electorate,  and  gave  battle  to 
the  French.  The  success  of  this  action,  saved  Hanover  :  the 
French  retired  towards  the  Rhine,  and  the  duke  posted  a  part 
of  his  army  for  the  defence  of  Hanover,  and  detached  the  re- 
mainder to  the  relief  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  whose  forces  had 
received  a  severe  check  by  the  Russians  in  Silesia,  where 
the  king  Avas  about  to  repair  in  person  ;  when  old  mareschal 
Daun  reinforced  the  Russians,  and  rendered  that  army  about 
one  hundred  thousand  strong  :  they  took  up  a  commanding 
position,  and  awaited  the  approach  of  the  king. 

Fired  with  resentment  at  the  ravages  of  the  enemy,  and 
inflamed  with  the  passions  of  war,  the  king  with  only  fifty 
thousand  men,  hastened  to  the  contest  ;  the  Russians  were 
broken,  and  routed  :  they  again  rallied  their  forces,  and  took 
post  on  a  commanding  eminence — the  king  made  several  des- 
perate efforts  to  dislodge  them  ;  but  failed.  The  Austrian 
cavalry  charged  the  Prussians  in  their  turn,  with  success  ; 
the  action  became  general  ;  thrice  the  king  at  the  head  of  his 
brave  troops,  led  them  to  the  charge — thrice  his  horse  was 
shot  under  him,  and  his  clothes  pierced  with  balls  ;  but  with 
out  effect  ;  the  mass  offeree  was  against  him,  and  baffled  his 
efforts.  The  king  retired,  leaving  a  carnage  of  thirty  thou- 
sand men  ;  more  than  half  of  which  were  Prussians  ;  night 
closed  the  scene,  and  prevented  a  total  overthrow. 

A  singular  anecdote  of  the  king,  in  this  memorable  action, 
may  be  worth  notice.  Upon  the  success  of  the  first  charge, 
when  the  Prussians  were  in  the  Russian  trenches  ;  the  king, 
in  the  heat  of  the  action,  wrote  the  following  message,  and 
despatched  it  to  the  queen.  "  We  have  driven  the  Russians 
from  their  entrenchments  ;  expect  within  two  hours  to  hear 
of  a  glorious  victory."  Immediately  upon  the  change  in  the 
fortune  of  the  day,  the  king  addressed  a  second  message  to 
the  queen,  from  the  field  of  action.  "  Remove  from  Berlin 
with  the  royal  family.  Let  the  archives  be  carried  to  Potz- 
19* 


222  WAR  CONTINUED. 

dam.     The  town  may  make  conditions  with  the  enemy.  " 
So  fickle  is  the  fortune  of  war. 

His  majesty  fell  back,  took  a  commanding  position,  recruit- 
ed and  reinforced  his  army,  was  able  to  cover  his  capital 
and  to  the  astonishment  of  Europe,  to  act  on  the  offensive,  and 
recover  all  his  losses  in  Saxony,  except  Dresden  ;  by  a  mas- 
terly movement,  he  compelled  the  Russians  to  retire  into 
Poland — and  in  spite  of  the  Austrian  generals  marched  into 
Saxony  ;  old  mareschal  Daun  fell  back  upon  Dresden. 

Fired  with  his  prospects,  the  king  resolved  to  cut  off  the 
retreat  of  mareschal  Daun,  by  a  detachment  from  his  own 
army  ;  reduce  the  Austrian  army  at  a  blow,  and  close  the 
campaign  with  the  recovery  of  Saxon)',  and  the  total  over- 
throw of  Daun.  This  rash  measure,  lost  him  the  whole 
force,  detached  to  intercept  the  retreat  of  the  old  mareschal  ; 
who  took  up  his  position  in  his  fortified  carnp,  and  the  king 
retired  into  winter  quarters. 

Thus  the  campaign  closed,  after  the  most  active  operations . 
desperate  carnage,  and  brilliant  displays  of  arms,  exactly 
where  it  began  ;  except  the  fall  of  Dresden  to  the  Austrians. 

The  operations  of  the  winter  opened  a  new  scene — the  suc- 
cesses in  America,  led  the  English  to  make  the  most  of  their 
fleet,  and  they  commenced  a  general  attack  upon  the  French 
West  India  colonies,  and  with  general  success.  The  French 
and  Dutch  made  several  efforts  to  ravage  the  English  settle- 
ments in  India,  but  failed. 

At  home  also  the  French  assembled  their  forces,  equipped 
their  fleets,  and  threatened  to  revenge  the  depredations  of  the 
English  upon  their  coast,  by  invading  England  :  this  brought 
the  theatre  of  action  upon  the  water.  A  general  blockade 
of  the  ports  of  France,  with  several  desperate  engagements 
between  the  English  and  French,  closed  this  scene  in  1760. 


CHAP.  XXXIV.  Continued. 

In  1761,  the  campaign  opened  with  a  general  distribution 

of  force,  about  the  same  as  at  the  commencement  of  the  last 

season,  with  a  continuation  of  the  general  plan.     The  duke 

of  Brunswick  protected  Hanover,  by  the  decisive  action  of 

,  Warburg.  The  king  of  Prussia,  sensible  of  his  rashness  the 


last  campaij 


WAR   CONTINUED.  223 


campaign,  particularly  at  the  close,  resolved  to  maintain 
his  strong  position,  and  act  on  the  defensive. 

He  saw  his  dominions  invaded  by  three  powerful  armies  : 
the  Russians  upon  the  north  ;  one  Austrian  army  in  Saxony, 
under  mareschal  Daun  ;  and  another  in  Silesia,  under  general 
Laudohn.  By  a  movement,  and  success  of  Laudohn,  the 
king  was  constrained  to  abandon  his  defensive  plan  :  by  a 
rapid  movement,  he  marched  into  Saxony,  and  laid  siege  to 
Dresden  :  mareschal  Daun  obliged  him  to  retire,  and  without 
an  action. 

At  the  same  time  Laudohn  invested  Breslaw  ;  and  prince 
Henry  compelled  him  to  abandon  it.  The  king,  alarmed  at 
the  prospect  of  losing  Silesia,  by  a  junction  between  the  Rus- 
sians and  mareschal  Daun,  made  a  masterly  movement  and 
flew  to  its  relief  with  his  whole  army,  passed  five  large  rivers, 
with  all  his  artillery  and  baggage,  traversed  a  country  more 
than  two  hundred  miles  in  extent,  and  appeared  in  Silesia  ; 
here  he  was  enclosed  by  these  three  powerful  armies,  and 
his  fate  considered  desperate. 

The  very  night,  on  which  an  attack  was  concerted  by  the 
three  generals,  upon  the  camp  of  the  king,  he  cautiously  re- 
tired, took  a  strong  and  commanding  position,  and  watched 
the  movements  of  the  enemy.  They  advanced  to  the  attack, 
as  was  agreed,  in  dead  of  night  ;  but  to  their  astonishment, 
the  king  was  gone.  At  break  of  day  he  fell  furiously  upon 
Laudohn,  and  before  mareschal  Daun  could  arrive  with  suc- 
cor, he  routed  and  dispersed  his  army. 

The  Russians  withdrew  from  the  scene,  mareschal  Daua 
also  retired,  and  took  up  a  strong  position  in  the  mountains, 
and  the  king  was  relieved  :  but  his  relief  was  only  to  follow 
the  Russians  to  his  capital,  where  they  penetrated,  rifled  his 
magazines  and  royal  treasures,  laid  the  city  under  contribu- 
tion, with  other  ravages  attendant  on  war,  and  retired. 

This  spread  a  general  gloom  over  the  affairs  of  the  king. 
He,  fired  with  indignation  and  rage,  resolved  to  take  ven- 
geance on  his  enemies.  With  this  view,  he  rushed  into  Sax- 
ony, with  an  army  of  fifty  thousand  men  ;  mareschal  Daun 
followed  him  with  an  army  of  eighty  thousand,  took  up  a 
strong  position,  and  watched  the  king. 

Resolved  to  attack  him  in  defiance  of  all  his  security,  the 
king  reconnoitered  his  position,  drew  out  his  army,  and  ad- 
vanced to  the  charge.  Mareschal  Daun  received  him  with 
the  discharge  of  more  than  two  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  ; 


224 


WAR    CONTINUED. 


victory  long  stood  perched  over  the  field — now  this,  and  now 
that  scale  prevailed,  until  the  great  Daun  was  wounded,  and 
carried  off  the  field  ;  victory  soon  declared  lor  the  king — the 
Austrians  fled,  and  left  the  field  strewed  with  a  terrible  car- 
nage, and  night  only  saved  the  ruins  of  their  army. 

This  victory,  revived  the  spirits  of  his  friends,  and  the  na- 
tion, and  by  his  sudden  movements,  he  recovered  all  Saxony, 
except  Dresden.  The  Austrians  abandoned  Silesia,  the  Rus- 
sians abandoned  Pomerania,  and  retired  into  Poland,  and  the 
Swedes  retired  under  the  cannon  of  Stralsund. 

Thus  again  the  theatre  of  Europe  has  been  drenched  in 
blood,  the  most  masterly  military  movements  have  been 
made,  the  most  desperate  and  sanguinary  battles  have  been 
fought,  the  greatest  feats  of  arms  have  been  displayed,  and 
no  decisive  event  has  occurred. 

The  great  contending  parties  are  again  balanced,  as  at  the 
close  of  the  last  campaign  ;  but  the  success  of  the  English 
in  America,  have  richly  compensated  them  for  their  liberal 
supplies  afforded  in  the  war.  The  French  received  a  blow, 
which  ruined  their  interest  in  North  America,  by  the  fall  of 
Quebec,  and  the  loss  of  Canada. 

The  French  were  equally  unsuccessful  in  India,  by  the 
loss  of  Pondicherry,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
January,  1 76 1 .  This  closed  the  French  power  in  Hindostan , 
and  confirmed  to  the  English  the  supremacy  of  the  whole 
Coromandel  coast. 

Again,  we  see  the  fruits  of  Continental  alliances  :  so  often, 
and  so  violently  clamoured  against  in  the  English  parliament. 
The  French  are  ruined  in  America,  in  India,  and  have  suffer- 
ed serious  losses  in  their  navy,  commerce,  and  West  India 
islands,  all  the  fruits  of  continental  wars. 

In  the  midst  of  this  great  continental  struggle,  and  the  suc- 
cesses of  his  reign,  died  George  II.  who  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson,  George  III.  then  twenty-three  years  of  age, 
Oct  25, 1760.  He  commenced  his  reign  under  the  most  favora- 
ble auspices,  and  received  the  applause  of  the  nation,  by  a  most 
popular  speech  'to  his  parliament,  in  which  he  exclaimed — 
"  Born  in  England,  I  glory  in  the  name  of  Briton." 

The  eyes  of  all  parties,  at  home  and  abroad,  were  fixed  on 
the  king.  At  this  eventful  crisis,  all  Christendom  became 
sensible  of  the  wisdom  of  that  continental  system  of  policy, 
which  commenced  in  England,  at  the  accession  of  William 


and  Mary  * 


CONGRESS    OF    AUGSBURG. 


and  Mary,*  and  during  the  memorable  reign  of  Lewis  XIV. 
of  France,  and  which,  by  continuing  down  to  this  time,  has 
wasted  the  resources  of  France  and  Holland,  (the  great  naval 
and  commercial  rivals  of  England,)  and  enabled  her  to  place 
her  naval  and  commercial  strength  upon  such  a  basis,  as  to 
hold  the  purse  for  confederated  Europe  in  one  hand,  and 
wield  the  sword  of  destiny  with  the  other,  and  thus  sit  arbiter 
of  the  world. 

When  George  announced  his  resolution  to  his  parliament, 
of  supporting  the  continental  system,  it  was  applauded  by  a 
vote  of  supply  of  twenty  millions  sterling;  a  supply,  which 
astonished  Europe,  struck  dismay  into  the  confederates,  and 
led  them  into  serious  dispositions  for  peace. 

The  finances  of  France  were  drained  ;  her  navy  and  com- 
merce were  depressed  ,  her  affairs  in  India  and  America  ruin- 
ed, and  her  West- India  colonies  lay  at  the  mercy  of  an  Eng- 
lish fleet,  prepared  to  invade  them.  The  courts  of  Vienna, 
Russia  and  Sweden,  were  in  no  better  condition  to  prosecute 
the  war. 

A  congress  was  accordingly  assembled  at  Augsburg,  to  ad- 
just the  differences  of  the  continental  powers  generally  ;  but, 
negociations  were  opened  at  London,  between  France  and 
England,  for  a  separate  peace  :  at  this  critical  state  of  affairs, 
died  Ferdiannd  VI.  king  of  Spain,  who  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Don  Carlos,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  now  Charles 
III.  This  momentous  event,  gave  a  new  change  to  the  af- 
fairs of  Christendom,  and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  famous 
family  compact  of  the  Bourbons,  upon  the  thrones  of  France 
and  Spain. f 

The  principle  of  utipossidetis,J  or  mutual  retention  ofpos- 

*  It  must  be  remembered,  that  continental  coalitions  first  began,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France. 

t  The  resentment  shown  by  Mr.  Pitt,  closed  at  once  the  family  com- 
pact between  the  courts  of  France  and  Spain.  This  compact  roused 
the  indignation  of  Mr.  Pitt,  and  he  called  for  a  declaration  of  war 
against  Spain  ;  this  was  opposed  wiih  equal  warmth,  and  the  minister 
resigned  in  disgust.  Upon  the  change  of  ministry  in  England,  the 
courts  of  France  and  Spain,  recalled  their  ministers  from  London,  and 
issued  mutual  declarations  of  war,  and  at  the  same  time  attempted  to 
coerce  the  king  of  Portugal  into  a  co-operation,  in  the  war  ;  this  failed, 
and  they  declared  war  with  Portugal. 

J  The  English  had  conquered  from  France,  in  North  America — No- 
va Scotia,  with  the  city  of  Louisburg — Lower  Canada,  with  the  cities 


226  INVASION    OF    PORTUGAL. 

sessions  acquired  by  the  parties  in  the  war,  spun  out  the  ne- 
gociations  at  London  :  at  the  same  time  Charles  III.  sensible 
of  the  triumphs  of  England,  over  France,  in  America,  by  the 
great  acquisitions  of  colonial  territory,  and  alarmed  for  the 
security  of  Spanish  America,  attempted  to  interpose  his  influ- 
ence in  the  negociations  at  London  ;  but  without  success, 
and  they  were  suspended. 

Thus  the  negociations  for  peace,  at  Augsburg  and  London, 
resulted  in  a  general  war,  and  again  the  whole  south  of  Eu- 
rope engaged  in  the  struggle.  During  these  negociations,  no 
cessation  of  hostilities  ensued  ;  the  war  raged  in  Germany, 
the  English  invaded  the  coast  of  France,  and  took  Bellisle. 
The  French  made  another  eifort  to  enter  the  electorate  of 
Hanover,  but  without  success  ;  and  the  year  1762,  closed 
without  any  thing  decisive. 

The  year  1763,  commenced  with  the  invasion  of  Portugal, 
by  the  arms  of  France  and  Spain,  but  without  success.  The 
French  renewed  their  attempts  on  Hanover — but  without  suc- 
cess.— The  death  of  Elizabeth,  empress  of  Russia,  and  the 
accession  of  the  duke  of  Holstein,  under  the  title  of  Peter  III. 
gave  some  relief  to  the  affairs  of  the  king  of  Prussia. 

Peter  turned  his  whole  attention  to  the  organization  of  the 
affairs  of  his  empire,  took  the  position  of  mediator,  between 
Austria  and  Prussia,  and  when  his  efforts  proved  abortive, 
declared  war  against  Austria,  and  joined  the  king  of  Prussia. 
This  change  produced  a  peace  between  Sweden  and  Prussia. 
These  two  events  left  the  king  of  Prussia  at  liberty  to  turn 
his  whole  attention  to  the  two  great  champions  of  Austria, 
mareschal  Daun  and  Laudohn. 

At  this  critical  moment  died  Peter  the  III.  suddenly,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Catharine  II.  She  confirmed  the  peace 
of  Peter,  but  withdrew  her  troops,  and  left  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians  to  settle  their  quarrel. — The  king,  by  a  grand 
movement,  foiled  the  efforts  of  his  opponents,  recovered 
Schiveidnitz,  and  settled  a  truce  with  Austria,  for  Saxony  and 
Silesia.  This  produced  a  general  truce  throughout  the 
empire. 

During  these  movements  in  Russia  and  Germany,  the  Eng- 
lish pursued  the  policy  which  they  had  now  so  fully  ma- 


of  Quebec  and  Montreal,  together  with  all  French  America,  except 
New-Orleans.  They  had,  the  last  year,  conquered  Pondicherry,  to- 
gether with  all  the  possessions  of  France  in  India,  and  eome  of  her 
West-India  islands. 


PEACE    OF    PARIS.  227 

tured  :  their  naval  expedition  was  crowned  with  the  conquest 
ofMartinico,  and  the  city  of  Havannah,  the  capital  of  the  isl- 
and of  Cuba,  and  key  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico. 

An  expedition  to  Madras,  in  India,  against  Manilla,  was 
crowned  with  the  conquest  of  all  the  Philippine  isles.  In 
this  triumphant  position,  the  British  minister  announced  his 
overtures  of  Peace  :  they  were  accepted  by  France  and 
Spain  ;  approved  by  parliament,  and  the  war  closed  by  the 
peace  of  Paris,  February,  1763. 

By  this  peace  the  king  of  Prussia  retained  all  his  domin- 
ions, with  the  confirmation  of  Saxony  and  Silesia  ;  England 
retained  all  her  conquests  in  North  America,  and  restored 
to  France  and  Spain,  her  conquests  in  the  East  and  West- 
Indies.  The  close  of  this  war,  sealed  the  policy  of  the  con- 
tinental system  of  England,  and  established  her  upon  the 
broad  basis  of  mistress  of  the  seas,  and  arbiter  of  the  world. 
The  war  in  Germany  was  closed  by  the  treaty  of  Huberts - 
burg,  the  same  year. 

The  splendor  of  the  arts  and  sciences  in  Europe,  kept 
pace  with  the  splendor  of  commerce  and  arms  ;  these  com- 
bined, gave  a  lustre  to  the  affairs  of  the  continent,  and  a  new 
polish  to  Christendom.  The  improvements  of  the  stage,  kept 
pace  with  the  improvements  of  the  age  ;  here,  poetry,  music 
and  action  combined,  gave  an  expression  to  the  theatre  un- 
known before,  to  any  age  of  the  world.  The  general  expan- 
sion given  to  the  mind,  by  the  reformation,  kept  pace  with, 
and  marked  the  progress  of  this  bright  luminary  of  the  west. 
The  persecutions  of  the  papal  power,  had  softened  into  a  sul- 
len state  of  tolerance. 

The  feuds  in  the  councils  of  Lewis  XIV.  which  called 
forth  the  bull  Unigenitus  from  pope  Benedict  XIV.  to  decide 
the  religious  controversy  between  the  Janesiste  and  Jesuits, 
and  whicji  kindled  a  fire  that  continued  to  rage  through  the 
reign  of  Lewis  XV.  deserves  some  attention.  The  haughty 
impatience,  and  violent  measures  of  Lewis  XV.  in  dissolving 
the  parliament  of  France,  called  up  the  general  attention  of 
the  nation  to  this  violence  done  to  their  liberties,  and  threat- 
ened the  life  of  the  king,  by  assassination. 

The  king  escaped  with  a  wound  only  :  this  brought  him  to 
his  senses.  He  restored  the  parliament :  and  the  Jesuits, 
fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  resentments  of  the  day.  The  king,  by 
an  edict,  expelled  them  from  his  kingdom,  and  abolished 
their  order  in  France. 


228  GENERAL    REMARKS. 

This  triumph  of  the  parliament  over  the  crown,  and  this 
triumph  of  the  Janesists  party  over  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  union  of  philosophy  with  infidelity, 
of  freedom  of  inquiry  with  the  violence  of  liberty,  and  paved 
the  way  for  all  the  future  sufferings  of  France. 

In  this  age  flourished  Montesquieu,  Helvetius,  Voltaire, 
De  Alembert,  Diderot,  Rosseau  and  Buffon.  The  same  ex- 
pansion of  the  mind  in  England,  kept  pace  with  liberty,  and 
the  reformation  :  there  flourished  a  Locke,  a  Swift,  with 
Addison,  Pope  and  others  ;  together  with  that  host  in  the 
councils,  and  in  the  field,  in  the  reign  of  queen  Anne,  who 
were  the  champions  of  all  the  future  greatness  of  England. 

In  this  age,  appeared  Bolingbroke  and  Hume  :  these,  hav- 
ing drank  at  the  fountain  of  Hobbes  and  Shaftsbury,  by  their 
talents  and  address,  diffused  the  poison  of  infidelity  through 
the  channels  of  science,  and  corrupted  the  nation. 

The  arts  in  this  age,  kept  pace  with  the  sciences  :  music, 
painting,  sculpture,  architecture  and  husbandry,  claimed  a 
fair  competition  with  the  most  refined  ages  of  Greece,  or 
Rome — and  the  science  of  government,  as  displayed  in  the 
balance  of  power  in  the  English  system,  stood  unrivalled  in 
the  annals  of  time. 

We  have  now  traced  the  progress  of  man  on  the  great 
theatre  of  Europe,  from  that  state  of  barbarism,  into  which 
he  was  precipitated,  by  the  violence  of  the  revolution  in  the 
western  Roman  empire,  through  all  the  extremes  of  igno- 
rance, violence,  superstition  and  licentiousness,  with  which 
he  struggled  for  more  than  one  thousand  years — and  marked 
the  more  prominent  causes,  which  produced  the  eventual 
changes,  that  raised  Christendom  to  her  present  state  of  civil 
refinement. 


CHAP.  XXXV. 

Discovery  and  settlement  of  America. 

THE  discovery  of  America,  we  have  noticed ;  but  the  settle- 
ment and  growth  of  this  new  world,  has  been  reserved,  as  a 
distinct  subject,  that  the  narrative  of  events  in  Europe  might 
not  be  interrupted,  and  that  a  proper  field  might  be  given  for 


On  the  evening  of  Oct.  llth,  1492,  Columbus  with  his  fleet, 
of  three  ships,  manned  by  90  men,  discovered  the  new  world. 
His  crew  immediately  threw  themselves  at  his  feel,  implored 
pardon  for  their  unbelief,  and  all  wilted  in  a  hymn  of  thanks- 
giving to  God.  Jit  sunrise,  they  landed  with  a  display  of  colors, 
warlike  music  and  martial  pomp.  Columbus,  richly  dressed, 
with  sword  inkand.jirst  set  foot  on  the  new  world,  and  his  men 
following,  kissed  the  ground  they  had  so  ions  desired  to  see. 
They  then  took  solemn  possession  of  the  co  •  try,  erected  a  cru- 
cifix, returned  thanks  to  God  for  thdr  successful  voyage,  and 
planted  the  national  flag,  with  the  usual  forms  of  their  country. 


DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA.  22$ 

the  illustration  of  this  extensive,  and  important  subject ;  a 
field  so  novel,  and  yet  so  interesting,  so  full  of  instruction. 

The  first  outlines  of  the  history  of  America,  I  have  com- 
pressed into  a  chronological  form,  showing  in  the  concisest 
manner,  the  first  adventures,  which  led  to  the  discoverery  and 
settlement  of  the  several  parts  of  this  new  world. 

Christopher  Columbus,  under  the  patronage  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  king  and  queen  of  Spain,  discovered  the  islands 
of  St.  Salvador  and  Cuba,  in  the  West-Indies,  and  returned  to 
Spain,  A.  D.  1492. 

Made  a  second  voyage,  which  proved  unsuccessful,      1493. 

Made  a  third  voyage,  and  discovered  South  America,   1498. 

Americus  Vespucius,  under  the  patronage  of  the  merchants 
cf  Seville,  followed  the  track  of  Columbus,  touched  upon  the 
continent  of  South  America ;  returned,  published  a  pompous 
account  of  his  voyage  and  discoveries,  and  gave  his  name  to 
the  continent  of  America,  1499» 

John  Cabot,  a  Venetian,  obtained  a  grant  from  Henry  VII. 
of  England  for  foreign  discoveries,  explored  the  coast  of  North' 
America,  touched  upon  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  returned 
to  England,  1495—6. 

He,  in  a  second  voyage  explored  the  whole  extent  of  the 
coast  from  Davis'  Straits  to  Florida,  discovered  Newfoundland, 
and  returned  to  England,  1497- 

Sebastian  Cabot,  (son  of  John  Cabot)  under  Henry  VII.  pur- 
sued the  adventures  of  his  father,  visited  Newfoundland,  and 
carried  several  natives  to  England,  1502. 

Brazil  discovered  by  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  on  his  voyage  to  In- 
dia, 1500. 

Cortez,  the  Spanish  adventurer,  conquered  Mexico,      1521. 

Peru  was  conquered  by  the  Spanish  adventurer  Pizarro,  1540. 

Terra  Firma  was  settled,  1520. 

The  Portuguese  settled  Brazil,  1549. 

Francis  I.  king  of  France,  made  some  efforts  for  discove- 
ries in  the  new  world  by  John  Verezano,  a  Florentine,  but 
without  success  ;  Verezano  was  lost  in  his  second  adven- 
ture, 1524. 

Ten  years  after  this,  Francis  made  another  effort,  by  James 
Quartier,  who  touched  at  Newfoundland  ;  discovered,  and 
gave  name  to  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  ;  and  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  find  a  passage  to  China.  The  next  year  he 
explored  the  St.  Lawrence  up  to  the  rapids,  wintered  in  the 
20 


230  BISCOVERY  OP   AMERICA. 

country  at  a  fort  which  he  built  on  the  isle  of  Orleans,  and  in 
the  spring  carried  back  with  him  some  of  the  natives  to 
France,  1534. 

Ferdinand  de  Soto,  a  Spaniard,  made  the  first  settlement  in 
Florida,  where  he  remained  three  years  and  died,  and  left  his 
conquest  to  Alverdo,  1539. 

Francis  I.  sent  James  Quartier  to  complete  a  settlement  in 
Canada  (or  New  France,)  where  he  remained  at  a  place  called 
Charlebourg,  about  two  years,  and  then  retired  to  Newfound- 
land, 154O. 
Francis  I.  sent  out  other  adventurers  to  strengthen  the  set- 
tlement in  Canada,  where  they  wintered,  but  returned  to 
France  in  the  spring  following  :  this  failure  checked  all  fur- 
ther efforts  for  settling  Canada  on  the  part  of  France  during 
this  reign.  These  adventurers  to  Canada,  were  succeeded  by 
adventurers  from  Europe,  for  the  discovery  of  the  north-east 
passage  to  India,  all  of  which  failed,  on  account  of  the  ice  in 
the  northern  ocean  About  this  time  began  the  Newfound- 
land fisheries,  which  have  since  proved  so  profitable  to  the 
world,  1542. 
The  French  under  Chatillon,  made  some  further  discov- 
eries in  East  Florida,  and  attempted  a  settlement,  which  fail- 
ed, 1562. 
Charles  IX.  sent  out  three  ships,  and  made  a  settlement  on 
the  river  St.  Mary,  built  a  fort,  and  called  the  settlement  Caro- 
lina, 1564. 
This  colony  was  overpowered  by  a  fleet  of  six  vessels  from 
Spain,  and  all  massacred,  1566. 
The  French  sent  out  to  Florida  a  fleet  of  three  ships,  to  re- 
venge on  the  Spaniards  the  murder  of  their  countrymen. — 
The  enterprise  proved  successful,  they  butchered  the  Spaniards, 
burnt  and  destroyed  their  fort  and  settlements,  and  returned  to 
France  :  this  closed  the  adventures  from  France  to  America  for 
fifty  years,  1568. 
The  discovery  of  a  north-east  passage  to  India  having  fail- 
ed, the  English  began  to  explore  the  north  west  passage  to 
India,  under  captain  Frobisher,  and  under  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  1576. 
Queen  Elizabeth  granted  letters  patent  to  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert  in  1579,  for  foreign  discoveries,  and  in  1583  he  touch* 
ed  at  Newfoundland,  and  from  thence  to  the  continent,  and 
took  possession  of  North  America,  for  the  English  crown. 


mSCO VERY  OF   AMERICA.  231 

In  this  adventure  he  was  lost  in  a  storm,  and  the  enterprise 
failed,  1583. 

In  1584,  the  coast  of  Virginia  was?  discovered,  named  after 
the  virgin  queen,  and  settled  by  one  hundred  and  seven  per- 
sons near  the  river  Roanoke  ;  in  1586  they  all  returned  to 
England  with  Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  touched  there  on  his 
homeward  passage.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  sent  out  seven  ships, 
with  another  colony,  to  the  same  settlement  on  the  Roanoke, 
where  they  also  endured  extreme  hardships,  and  were,  in  their 
turn,  conveyed  back  to  England  by  Sir  Francis  Drake.  Soon 
after  they  were  gone,  a  new  colony  arrived  to  support  the  first, 
with  fifty  men,  who  concluded  to  stay,  notwithstanding  the 
others  had  gone.  The  next  year  Sir  Walter  sent  out  d  third 
colony  to  support  the  second  ;  when  they  arrived  at  Roanoke, 
not  a  vestige  of  the  former  colony  remained.  This  third  colo- 
ny consisted  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen,  who  attempted  to  re- 
new the  former  settlement  at  Roanoke. 

Governor  White  came  over  again,  to  recruit  the  little 
colony  in  Virginia 5  but  alas!  they  had  all  shared  the  fate 
of  the  two  former,  and  not  a  vestige  of  them  was  to  be 
found,  1596. 

The  English  explored  the  coast,  as  far  north  as  Cape  Cod, 
and  called  the  country  North  Virgicia  ;  but  made  no  settlement, 
and  returned  to  England,  1602. 

The  English  made  two  ad  ventures  to  Virginia,  and  not  find- 
ing the  third  colony  at  Roanoke,  and  being  roughly  handled  by 
the  natives,  they  all  returned  to  England,  1603. 

The  French  began  the  settlement  at  Port  Royal,  and  other 
places  on  the  bay  of  Fundy,  1604. 

The  English  explored  the  coast  of  the  province  of  Maine, 
made  no  settlement,  and  returned  to  England,  1605. 

The  London  company  (by  virtue  of  letters  patent,  under 
Jau'es  I.  king  of  England,)  sent  out  a  colony  to  South  Vir- 
ginia, and  began  a  settlement  at  Powhattan,  or  James  ri- 
ver, 1606. 

In  1 607  they  sent  out  a  second  colony,  and  settled  James 
Town  in  South  Virginia,  on  James  river.  This  was  the  first 
town  planted  in  North  America,  notwithstanding  all  the  efforts 
which  had  been  made  :  but  the  next  winter,  James  Town 
was  burnt.  This  year  the  Plymouth  company  sent  out,  and 
settled  a  small  colony  at  the  mouth  of  Sagadehoc  river,  in 
North  Virginia,  of  forty-five  persons,  under  captain  Popham 
(heir  president ;  the  severity  of  the  winter,  together  with 


232  DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA. 

the  loss  of  their  stores  by  fire  ruined  this  colony  :  and  the  few 
that  remained  returned  in  the  spring  to  England.  This  mis- 
fortune deterred  all  further  settlements  in  North  Virginia 
for  several  years.  The  French  began  the  settlement  of  Que- 
bec, 1607. 

In  1608  and  9,  the  London  company  sent  out  supplies,  and 
a  recruit  of  two  hundred  persons,  to  strengthen  the  colony  at 
James  Town,  which  now  amounted  to  five  hundred  men.  Ad- 
miral Somers,  on  his  passage  to  America,  with  a  part  of  this 
little  fleet,  was  wrecked  on  one  of  the  Bahama  islands,  and  lost 
his  ship,  but  the  crew  and  passengers  were  all  saved,  and  re- 
mairred  there  until  the  next  year,  when  they  were  all  taken  off 
by  lord  De  la  War,  on  his  passage  to  Virginia,  to  enter  upon 
the  government  of  this  little  colony — which  the  last  year  con- 
sisted of  five  hundred  men,  but  was  now  reduced  to  sixty  ;  who 
had  abandoned  the  colony  and  embarked  for  England  ;  but 
being  met  by  their  new  governor,  they  were  persuaded  to 
return  to  James  Town,  where  they  all  arrived  safe,  June  10th, 
1610. 

In  1611,  two  supplies  of  three  hundred  men  each,  were  sent 
to  this  colony,  together  with  cattle,  swine,  &c.  to  enable  them 
to  cultivate  their  own  supplies. 

In  1609,  captain  Henry  Hudson,  under  a  commission  of 
king  James  I.  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  company,  in  quest 
of  a  north  west  passage  to  India,  discovered  North,  or  Hud- 
son's river,  and  the  same  voyage  discovered  Hudson's  bay. — 
In  161 3,  the  Dutch  West  India  company  opened  a  trade  to  this 
river  ;  and  in  1623  established  trading  houses  on  Connecticut 
river  ;  claimed  all  the  country  from  Cape  Cod  to  Cape  Henlo- 
pen,  and  called  it  New  Netherlands  ;  this  commenced  the  set- 
tlement of  New  York.  At  this  time  the  Virginians  sent  and 
dislodged  the  French  from  all  their  settlements  in  North  Ame- 
rica, excepting  Quebec ;  and  brought  all  their  effects  to  Virgin- 
ia, with  all  their  vessels.  The  French,  Dutch,  and  English 
carried  on  an  advantageous  trade  with  the  natives  ;  and  in  coast- 
ing along  the  shores  for  this  purpose,  made  further  discoveries, 
and  drew  charts,  one  of  which,  drawn  by  a  captain  Smith, 
changed  the  name  of  North  Virginia,  to  that  of  New  Eng- 
land, which  it  continues  to  hold. 

Baffin's  bay  was  discovered  by  William  Baffin,  in  search  for 
a  north  west  passage,  1615. 

The  distresses  of  war,  famine  and  pestilence,  amongst  the 
natives  of  New-England,  prepared  the  way  for  a  more  quiet 


SETTLEMENT  OF   NORTH   AMERICA.  233 

possession — and  the  little  colony  of  puritans,  from  the  flock  of 
the  reverend  John  Robinson,  to  make  their  settlement  at  Ply- 
mouth. 

The  whole  extent  of  coast  being  now  explored,  from  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  to  Davis'  Straits,  it  will  exceed  the  limits  of 
this  work  to  detail  the  subsequent  adventures  and  settlements  ; 
I  shall  therefore  comprise  the  whole  in  one  short  chronological 
table. 
Quebec,  the  capital  of  Lower  Canada,  settkd  by  the 

French,  1 608. 

Newfoundland  by  the  English,  1610. 

Virginia,  do.  1610. 

New  York,          ?      d  I6l4> 

New  Jersey,        5 

New  Plymouth,  by  the  puritan  colony,  1620. 

Nova  Scotia,  by  the  Scotch,  under  Sir  William  Alex- 
ander, 1622. 
Confirmed  to  the  English  by  France,    after  several 

changes,  at  the  peace,  1648. 

New  Hampshire  settled  by  the  English,  1623. 

Delaware  and  Pennsylvania,  by  the  Swedes  and  Fins,  1627* 
Massachusetts  Bay,  by  the  English,  1628. 

Maryland,  do.  1633. 

Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,    from  Massachusetts 

Bay,  1.635. 

New  Jersey,  under  a  grant  to  the  duke  of  York,  by  the 

English,  1664. 

South  Carolina,         do.  1669- 

Pennsylvania,  by  a  grant  to  William  Penn,  do.  1682. 

North  Carolina,  by  the  English,  1728. 

Georgia,  do.  1732. 

Vermont,  by  New  Hampshire  and  New  York,  1764. 

Kentucky,  from  Virginia,  under  Col.  Boon,  1773. 

Ohio,  from  Connecticut  and  other  states,  1787- 

Tennessee,         do.  1789- 

The  territories  of  Michigan,  Illinois  and  Indiana, 

about  1780  &  1801. 

Louisiana  purchased  of  France  for  fifteen  millions  of 

dollars,  1803. 

The  territory  of  Orleans,  und«r  the  name  of  the  State 

of  Louisiana,  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  1812. 

The  territory  of  Mississippi  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  1818. 
The  territories  of  Indiana  and  Illinois  were  admitted^ 

20* 


2S4  SETTLEMENT   OP   NORTH   AMERICA, 

The  District  of  Maine,  (now  State  of  Maine)  with  the 

territory  of  Missouri,  was  admitted,  1820. 

By  this  table  may  be  seen  the  most  rapid  and  extensive 
settlements,  that  have  ever  been  witnessed  in  the  family  of 
man  ;  embracing  an  extent  of  territory,  from  the  gulf  of  Mex- 
ico on  the  south,  to  the  Hudson's  bay  on  the  north,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  shores  on  the  east,  to  the  interior  wilds  of  Louisia- 
na on  the  west — more  than  2000  miles  square,  embracing  a 
population  of  mere  than  fourteen  millions  of  free  people, — all 
accomplished  in  the  space  of  two  centuries :  those  very  two 
centuries  in  which  we  have  witnessed  the  conflicts  and  distress- 
es on  the  continent  of  Europe,  since  the  reigns  of  Charles 
V.  of  Spain,  Francis  I.  of  France,  and  Henry  VIII.  of  Eng- 
land. 

That  age  of  the  reformation,  when  the  immortal  Luther 
commenced  his  glorious  career,  and  accomplished  the  prediction 
of  the  prophet  St.  John,  in  Revelations  xiv.  6 — laid  the  found- 
tion  for  the  religious  liberties  of  Europe,  and  the  civil  and  re- 
ligious liberties  of  America. 

A  history  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  several  States  of 
America,  their  private  disputes,  their  conflicts  with  the  natives, 
together  with  the  genius  and  forms  of  their  governments,  from 
the  great  similarity  that  was  common  to  the  whole,  would  be 
tedious  and  uninteresting.  I  will  select  the  colony  of  Plymouth, 
and  with  this  commence  and  continue  the  history  of  Ameri- 
ca. 

This  little  family  of  puritans,  fired  with  that  civil  and  reli- 
gious zeal  which  shone  so  conspicuous  at  the  close  of  the  reign 
of  James  I.  in  resisting  the  overbearing  influence  of  popery,  and 
the  usurpations  of  the  crown,  and  in  establishing  the  common- 
wealth in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. — rallied  round 
their  clergyman,  the  Rev.  John  Robinson,  a  pious  godly  man, 
retired  from  the  persecutions  of  their  country,  and  passed  over 
into  Holland :  not  pleased  with  the  Dutch,  the  flock  divided, 
and  a  little  colony  of  101,  embarked  for  America,  and  landed 
at  Plymouth,  Nov.  20,  O.  S.  1620.  The  sufferings  they  en- 
dured from  the  severity  of  the  climate,  the  hostile  character  of 
the  natives,  and  the  want  of  supplies,  were  too  distressing  to 
be  described ;  yet  they  were  endured,  with  all  that  patience 
and  resignation  which  the  gospel  affords,  to  all  those  who  love 
and  obey  its  dictates,  and  cherish  in  their  hearts  the  purity  of 
its  principles- 


COLONY  OF  PLYMOUTH.  235 

At  this  time  a  general  spirit  of  foreign  adventure  prevailed, 
and  commenced  settlements  extensively  upon  the  Atlantic 
shores  of  North  America,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  chronological 
table;  the  emigrations  from  England,  (although  in  detached 
parts,)  retained  a  general  union  and  harmony,  as  having  sprung 
from  one  great  family.  They  all  brought  out  with  them  those 
principles  of  liberty  which  prevailed  over  tyranny  in  England, 
and  established  the  commonwealth  under  Oliver  Cromwell — 
yet  in  forming  their  civil  institutions,  they  retained  the  true 
principles  of  that  balance  of  power  in  the  three  branches  of  the 
British  government,  with  an  elective  chief  magistrate,  which 
secured  to  them  all  the  blessings  of  civil  and  religious  liberty  ; 
these  they  enjoyed,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  our  present  great 
national  compact. 

The  use  of  gun-powder  gave  the  first  settlers  of  America  a 
superiority  over  the  wild,  barbarous,  untutored  savages  of  this 
howling  wilderness,  which  nothing  of  human  invention  could 
have  supplied  ;  this,  by  spreading  terror  and  astonishment, 
with  carnage  and  destruction,  overawed  these  hardy  sons  of  na- 
ture, and  either  repelled  them  from  their  borders,  or  tamed  them 
to  peace  and  submission. 

Although  the  rapid  progress  of  the  settlements  encroached 
upon  their  rights ;  robbed  them  of  their  corn-fields  and  their 
hunting  grounds  ;  and  kindled  resentments,  which  often  broke 
out  into  resistance,  violence,  and  savage  war  ;  these  were  soon 
subdued  by  the  all  conquering  force  of  fire  arms.  Treaties 
were  made  with  the  chiefs,  lands  were  purchased,  or  ceded  by 
the  rights  of  conquest,  and  in  1755  the  colonies  of  New  Eng- 
land, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania^  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  had  all  established 
colonial  governments,  and  were  able  to  assert  and  maintain 
their  rights  against  the  savage  and  barbarous  depredations  o 
the  natives,  and  the  encroachments  of  their  neighbors  the 
French.  The  French  were  settled  on  the  north,  on  the  island 
of  (-ape  Breton,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  Canadas,  with  a  line  of 
military  posts  extending  from  Quebec  through  the  western  line 
of  the  colonies  to  New-Orleans. 

At  this  time  the  government  of  France  had  become  jealous 
of  the  rising  strength  of  these  colonies,  and  fired  with  that  ambi- 
tion of  giving  law  to  the  world,  which  we  have  seen  displayed 
in  the  reigns  of  Lewis  XIV.  and  XV.  they  contemplated  the 
conquest  of  all  British  America  ;  and  by  an  attack  upon  these 
colonies  in  1755,  commenced  that  seven  years's  war,  which 


236  OLD  FRENCH  WAR. 

drenched  Europe  and  America  in  blood  ;  that  war  which  was 
rendered  so  illustrious  in  Europe,  by  the  successful  displays  of 
the  talents  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  was  so  gloriously  closed, 
in  1763. 


CHAP.  XXXVI. 

General  operations  of  the  seven  years7  war  in  America,  to  the 
peace  of  If  63 — with  some  remarks. 

A  particular  detail  of  the  events  and  operations  of  the  war  of 
1755 — 6,  in  America,  will  give  a  more  distinct  character  of  the 
natives.,  and  their  savage  wars,  as  well  as  the  character,  genius, 
and  civil  and  religious  institutions  of  the  colonies,  than  can  oth- 
erwise be  obtained. 

The  settlement  of  Nova  Scotia,  (which  was  made  by  the 
Scotch,)  after  repeated  struggles,  was  ceded  by  France  to  Eng- 
land, by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1713.  During  these  struggles, 
and  when  France  was  in  possession,  the  French  population 
surpassed  the  Scotch  arid  English,  and  rendered  Nova  Scotia 
distinctly  a  French  colony,  to  which  France  had  given  the 
mime  of  Le  Acadie,  and  the  inhabitants  assumed  the  name  of 
neutrals; 

The  English  government,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  neutral- 
ity of  Le  Acadie,  in  the  war  of  1746;  immediately  upon  the 
peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  sent  out  a  colony  from  England,  to 
settle  and  build  the  town  of  Halifax.  The  object  of  this  com- 
manding position  was,  to  hold  a  balance  of  power  in  those  seas, 
and  protect  the  valuable  fisheries. 

This  movement  thwarted  the  views,  alarmed  the  pride,  and 
excited  the  jealousy  of  France.  A  question  of  limits  and  boun- 
dary, sprang  up  between  the  two  powers  in  Nova  Scotia,  and 
soon  extended  through  the  whole  line,  from  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  particular  controversy  about  limits  and  boundaries, 
through  this  vast  and  extensive  howling  wilderness  ;  boundaries 
which  neither  of  the  parties  had  ever  enjoyed,  but  which  both 
contemplated  to  enjoy  hereafter,  would  be  useless  here — suffice 
it  to  say,  the  French,  fired  with  resentment,  first  pushed  their 
encroachments  in  Le  Acadie,  or  Nova  Scotia,  and  next  excited 
the  natives  and  French  to  make  depredations. 

They  seized  on  a  trading  establishment^  which  Virginia 


OLD    FRENCH    WAR.  237 

had  made  on  the  Ohio  river,  massacred  all  the  settlers,  plun- 
dered and  carried  off  their  booty,  to  the  amount  of  twenty 
thousand  pounds,  and  claimed  the  jurisdiction  as  belonging 
to  New  France,  (comprehending  the  Canadas  and  Louisiana.) 
They  next  seized  on  another  Virginia  settlement,  at  the  forks 
of  the  Monongahela,  with  a  force  of  one  thousand  men,  and 
eighteen  pieces  of  cannon. 

These  formidable  encroachments  threw  the  colonies  into 
the  highest  alarm,  soon  produced -an  order  from  England  to 
repel  force  with  force,  and  war  commenced.  Here  began 
in  America  the  scourging  of  that  rod,  which  instead  of  a  curse, 
as  was  then  considered,  has  proved  the  means  of  consolida- 
ting and  securing,  all  the  bkssings  of  free  and  independent 
America. 

The  orders  of  the  crown  were  obeyed ;  but  what  could  be 
the  resistance  of  the  colonies,  in  their  discordant,  disjoined 
state,  against  a  power  acting  promptly  under  one  head,  and  that, 
the  governor  of  all  new  Fi  ance. 

The  same  controversies  which  distracted  the  English  na- 
tion, were  carried  with  the  different  colonies  into  the  new 
world.  The  strife  of  religion  and  government,  sowed  the 
seeds  of  bitterness  in  the  several  colonies — they  quarrelled- 
with  their  governors,  they  quarrelled  with  the  crown,  and  they 
quarrelled  with  each  other,  about  limits  and  jurisdiction.  The 
spirit  of  their  religions  were  different ;  some  catholic,  some 
protestant ;  this  rendered  the  genius  of  thdr  governments 
different,  some  verging  towards  monarchy,  others  to  democra- 
cy. All  producing  a  want  of  union  and  conceit. 

This  was  well  understood  by  France,  and  soon  realized  by 
Great-Britain  and  the  colonies.  To  remedy  these  evils,  and 
to  be  able  to  call  forth  their  resources  with  energy,  a  con- 
gress of  all  the  colonies  was  proposed,  and  held  in  tlie  city 
of  Albany^  and  the  chiefs  of  the  Iroquois,  (or  six  nations,) 
were  invited  to  attend.  The  intrigues  of  tbe  French,  de- 
feated the  plan  of  engaging  the  Iroquois  ir»  tht-  war  ;  but  their 
neutrality  was  secured  by  presents  from  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  promise  of  repelling  the  French  from  their 
country. 

Fired  with  zeal  and  unanimity,  the  congress  resolved  to 
prosecute  the  war,  and  support  the  British  claims  in  North 
America.  Major  Washington  was  despatched  from  Virginia, 
to  watch  the  motions  of  the  enemy,  and  recover  tb>  set- 
tlements on  the  Ohio  and  Monongahela,  but  without  any  dc- 


238  ^RADDOCK'S  DEFEAT. 

cisive  operations.  The  intrigues  of  the  courts  of  France  and 
England,  disguised  all  their  operations  under  the  mask  of 
peace,  but  at  the  same  time,  they  sent  powerful  fleets  and  arma- 
menis  to  support  their  claims  in  America. 

A  collision  between  these  fleets,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  capture  of  two  sixty-four  gun  ships  by  the  English, 
closed  this  diplomatic  farce,  and  commenced  the  war.  This 
success  gave  spirit  to  the  British  nation,  and  kindled  a  flame  of 
ardor,  zeal  and  vigor,  throughout  the  colonies. 

The  legislature  of  Massachusetts  bay,  passed  an  act  of  non- 
intercourse  with  Louisburg,  and  sent  reinforcements  to  Nova 
Scotia.  The  successes  of  colonel  Moncton,  soon  established 
the  British  government,  and  restored  tranquillity  to  Nova 
Scotia. 

During  these  general  operations,  the  French  had  establish* 
cd  themselves  upon  the  Monongahela,  and  built  the  strong 
post,  called  fort  Duquesne,  at  the  confluence,  where  Pitts- 
burg  now  stands.  An  expedition  was  planned  to  co-operate 
with  major  Washington,  under  the  command  of  the  British 
general  Braddock,  in  reducing  this  post.  General  Braddock, 
unacquainted  with  Indian  warfare,  and  fired  with  the  am- 
bition of  his  nation,  was  precipitated  into  a  scene,  unknown 
in  the  tactics  of  Europe,  and  indescribable  in  human  lan- 
guage. 

At  mid  day,  near  the  object  of  his  destination,  and  in  the 
midst  of  security, a  terrible  fire  of  musketry  poured  in  upon 
him,  on  all  sides,  accompanied  with  the  most  hideous  and  tre- 
mendous yells  of  those  hellhounds  of  the  forest ;  the  whole 
thicket  was  in  a  blaze  with  the  explosion  of  an  Indian  ambus- 
cade, and  not  an  enemy  to  be  seen ;  the  whole  wilderness 
resounded  with  the  terrors  of  the  war  whoop — the  plain  was 
strewed  with  heaps  of  dead,  and  the  troops  appalled  with  the 
horrors  of  the  scene,  and  the  groans  of  the  dying.  Braddock 
was  slain.  The  illustrious"  major,  (now  colonel  Washington,) 
conducted  the  retreat,  and  led  off  the  shattered  IY  mains  oi  this 
army,  with  the  loss  of  all  their  artillery,  baggage,  &c.  together 
with  their  general,  and  all  the  principal  officer*.  The  regular 
force  retired  to  Albana,  to  join  general  Shirley — a«U  Virginia 
was  left  to  her  fate. 

1  ;ie  want  of  union  in  their  councils  and  measures,  render- 
ed in-.'  °fforts  of  the  southern  states  feeble  and  ineffectual ;  but 
New-\orkajad  New-Jersey,  combining  with  New-England — 
passed  decrees  of  non-intercourse  with  all 'the  French  settle- 


TAKEN.  239 

trients  in  North  America,  and  united  in  two  grand  expeditions 
against  Crown  Point  and  Niagara  :  the  first  under  sir  William 
Johnson,  and  the  second  under  general  Shirley. 

The  colonial  troops  were  assembled  at  Albany,  when  the 
news  of  the  defeat  at  fort  Duquesne,  was  announced  ;  this 
damped  the  ardor  of  the  enterprise  :  the  attempt  upon  Niaga- 
ra was  deferred,  and  the  expedition  to  Crown  Point  abandon- 
ed, after  some  successful  skirmishing.  The  armies  went  into 
winter  quarters,  and  closed  the  campaign  of  1757- 

In  1758,  the  spirits  of  England  and  America  were  raised, 
by  the  restoration  of  Mr.  Pitt,  to  the  head  of  the  administra- 
tion ;  but  the  convention  of  Closter-seven,  in  Germany,  and 
the  failure  of  Mr.  Pitt's  grand  expedition  to  the  coast  of 
France,  damped  their  ardor.  Gr  at  supplies  of  troops  and 
military  stores  however  were  sent  to  America,  and  an  expe- 
dition was  planned  against  Louisburg,  und-.r  lord  Loudon  ;  but 
just  at  the  critical  moment  of  attempting  the  enterprise,  intel- 
ligence arrived,  that  Louisburg  was  reinforced  from  France, 
by  a  strong  fleet  and  armament — and  that  attack  was  aban- 
doned. 

During  these  movements,  the  French  had  seized  on  fort 
Oswego,  at  the  confluence  of  the  river  of  the  same  name  with 
Lake  Ontario,  which  secured  the  ascendancy  over  the  Iro- 
quois,  (or  six  nations,^  together  with  all  the  tribes  that  sur- 
round the  great  lakes,  and  left  the  whole  extent  of  the  co- 
lonial settlements  exposed  to  their  ravages.  The  finest  vil- 
lages fell  a  sacrifice  to  savage  depredations.  Flushed  with 
success,  the  French  planned  an  expedition  against  fort  Wil- 
liam Henry,  ( upon  the  south  side  of  lake  George ,)  and  carried 
it  almost  without  opposition  ;  the  garrison,  although  protected 
by  a  capitulation,  were  permitted  to  suffer  all  the  horrors  of  an 
Indian  massacre. 

These  misfortunes  overwhelmed  the  kingdom  and  the  co- 
lonies, with  a  gloom  and  melancholy,  bordering  on  despair. 
They  began  to  fear  that  all  was  lort — when  a  ray  of  light  ap- 
peared in  the  East :  the  British  arms  triumphed  over  the 
French  in  India — the  town  of  Calcutta  was  restored  by  the 
efforts  of  the  famous  colonel  Clive :  the  company  were  rein-* 
stated  in  all  their  privileges  and  possessions,  and  extensive 
and  valuable  acquisitions  crowned  their  conquests  iu  India. 

During  these  operations  in  the  east,  lord  Loudon  had  been 
succeeded  in  America,  by  general  Abercrombie,  and  the 
expedition  of  Louisburg  renewed.  A  strong  detachment 
from  Nova  Scotia,  under  general  Amherst,  supported  by  a 


240  CAPTURE    OP   LOUISBUBG* 

powerful  fleet,  joined  general  Abercrombie,  and  appeared 
before  Louisburg.  The  place  was  invested  by  sea  and  land  ; 
and  in  six  weeks,  the  success  of  the  British  arms  was  crowned 
by  the  capture  of  Louisburg,  and  the  whole  island  of  Cape 
Breton,  together  with  an  important  naval  force,  stationed  for 
the  defence  of  the  harbor.  This  secured  to  the  English  the 
command  of  the  fisheries,  and  the  gulph  of  St.  Lawrence,  and 
raised  the  spirits  of  the  colonies. 

Flushed  with  success,  general  Abercrombie  repaired  to 
Albany,  took  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  north,  and 
commenced  an  expedition  against  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point.  He  embarked  upon  lake  George,  with  about  16,008 
men,  after  slight  successes,  and  little  opposition,  and  appear- 
ed by  forced  marches  before  Crown  Point :  here  he  found  a 
strong  position,  defended  by  a  morass,  a  strong  breast  work, 
and  a  chevaux  de  frise  :  his  impatience  led  him  to  commence 
the  attack,  before  his  artillery  had  arrived  j  the  assault  was 
desperate,  the  defence  firm,  and  the  defeat  decisive ;  the 
general  was  compelled  to  retire,  with  the  loss  of  about  2000 
men.  To  repair  this  loss  and  disgrace,  general  Abercrombie 
detached  colonel  Bradstreet,  with  3000  men,  to  reduce  fort 
Frontenac,  at  the  confluence  of  Lake  Ontario  with  the  St. 
Lawrence. 

This  expedition  was  crowned  with  success  :  the  fort,  with  an 
immense  quantity  of  provisions  and  military  stores,  with  sixty 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  nine  armed  sloops,  were  the  trophies  of 
this  victory. 

This  success  gave  spirit  to  the  expedition  now  planned  against 
Fort  l)u  Quesne,  under  Gen  Forbes.  The  French  appalled 
at  the  loss  of  Louisburg  and  Frontenac,  abandoned  the  fort  and 
retired  down  the  Ohio  to  their  settlements  on  the  Mississippi. 

These  successes  in  America  gave  strength  and  confidence  to 
the  English  administration,  and  spirit  and  union  to  the  colonies, 
secured  a  geneial  quiet  throughout  their  extensive  frontier,  and 
closed  the  operations  of  i758. 


CHAP.  XXXVI.     Continued. 

GREAT  preparations  were  made  in  England  and  America, 
during  the  winter,  to  bring  the  war  in  America  to  a  close  the 
ensuing  campaign.  The  balance  of  the  great  contending  par- 
ties on  the  continent,  still  found  employment  for  the  arms 


iJATTLE    OF    THE    TLA1\*  24  > 


and  resources  of  France,  and  left  England  at  liberty  to  turn 
her  whole  attention  to  the  American  war.  The  minister  as- 
sumed a  train  of  the  boldest  movements,  and  was  peculiarly  for- 
tunate in  his  selection  of  officers  to  command. 

He  sent  a  strong  land  and  naval  force  up  the  St.  Lawrence 
!o  invest  Quebec,  under  the  command  of  the  illustrious  Wolfe, 
and  concerted  a  plan  of  operations  under  Gen.  Ainherst,  by 
the  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  to  penetrate  into  Canada,  and 
co-operate  with  Gen.  Wolfe,  in  the  capture  of  Quebec. 

The  movements  were  made  with  great  firmness  and  skill. 
Wolfe  appeared  with  his  fleet  before  Quebec,  early  in  the  sea- 
Son  ;  here  he  found  a  fortress  strongly  garrisoned,  and  sup- 
ported with  a  powerful  force  of  French,  Canadians  and  Indi- 
ans, and  rendered  almost  impregnable  both  by  nature  and  art. 
Struck  with  astonishment  at  the  object  before  him,  he  took  up 
his  position,  and  put  forth  all  the  efforts  of  his  genius  to  accom* 
plish  his  purpose. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  army  tinder  Gen.  Amherst  was  early 
in  motion,  the  fortresses  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  be- 
came the  trophies  ef  his  victories;  the  garrisons  had  retired  to 
the  Isle  An  Noix,  and  waited  his  approach. 

The  Gen;  advanced  to  the  attack,  but  rinding  the  position 
too  strong,  and  the  season  far  advanced,  retired  to  Crown- 
Point,  and  took  up  his  winter  quarters,  without  having  learn- 
ed the  fate  of  Gen.  Wolfe.  Not  sr>  with  Wolfe — he  spun  oui 
the  season  with  various  efforts  ;  but  his  prospects  were  so 
Faint  that  the  energies  of  his  mind  began  to  abate  j  the  insur- 
mountable obstacles  opposed  to  the  ardor  of  his  spirits,  \v;;s<* 
cd  his  health,  and  the  approach  of  winter  led  him  to  despair  of 
success. 

He  called  a  council  of  war,  in  which  it  Was  resolved  to  car- 
ry their  future  operations  above  the  town,  and  if  possible, 
force  the  French  general  Montcalm,  to  an  engagement.  Ac- 
cordingly the  fieet  moved  with  the  tide,  in  the  silence  oi 
night,  up  the  river,  passed  the  city,  and  with  unprecedented 
alacrity  and  skill,  the  whole  army  was  landed,  and  conduced 
up  a  precipice  by  their  gallant  general,  in  the  dead  of  ni^ht : 
a  precipice  considered  almost  impassable  by  an  individual  in 
the  light  of  day. 

On  the  approach  of  morn,  the  whole  British  army  were  form- 
ed on  the  plain,  with  their  general  at  their  head.  The  enemy 
soon  had  intelligence  of  their  position,  and  Montcalm 
out  of  his  strong  camp  to  give  him  battle, 


~24'2  FALL    OF    QTJEUtC, 

rriie  regulars  of  France,  with  the  Canada  militia,  coin. 
eed  a  distant  fire,  accompanied  will)  the  hideous  yells  of  ihcir 
numerous  Indian  allies,  and  appeared  to  be  able  to  overwhelm 
with  numbers  this  he'ro,  with  his  litile  phalanx.  General  Wolfe 
took  the  precaution  to  reserve  his  fire,  and  receive  the  enemy  at 
the  distance  of  about  forty  paces  ;  he  then  opened  a  fire  upon 
them  XvHich  checked  their  career  ;  this,  when  renewed,  threw 
them  into  disorder;  again,  when  repeated,  threw  them  into 
flight;  at  tiiis  critical  moment  fell  the  illustrious  WoltV,  the  he- 
roof  the  plains  of  Abraham — the  cry  of  "  they  run,"  reached 
his  ear  ;  he  raided  his  head  ai.d  asked  who  run  ?  The  reply  was, 
•;  tfa  enemy  run" — lie  exclaimed  then  I  die  in  peace,  and  ex- 
pired. 

The  gallant  generals  Townscud  and  JVlurrny  took  vengeance 
on  the  fugitives  wilh  the  bayonet,  and  the  highland  broadsword  ; 
the  gallant  Montcalm  was  mortally  wounded ;  the  plains  of 
Abraham  we  re  strewn  with  the  carnage  of  the  dead  and  the  dy- 
in,<;.  Ti;e  \5ctors  pursued  and  threatened  to  enter  the  city  com- 
!':1\< .  d  ,vi:!i  the  fugitives,  and  in  th«-  midst  of  triumph  to  plant 
their  standards  upon  the  walls  of  Quebec ;  but  they  checked 
their  career,  and  in  five  days  the  city  fell  by  capitulation. 

Thus  fell  Quebec,  the  key  of  French  America,  and  thus 
fell  great  -Wolfe,  at  thirty-five  years  of  age,  the  pride  and  or* 
natnent  of  tiis  country,  and  his  country's  arms.  This  was 
not  the  triumph  of  Woli'e  over  Montcalm,  not  the  triumph  of 
conquest  over  the  fall  of  a  city,  however  strong  the  fortress, 
nor  the  tiimnph  of  England  over  France.  The  God  of  our 
Fathers  stood  aibifer  of  the  scene,  and  wielded  the  destiny. 
The  triumph  was  the  triumph  of  the  reformation  ;  religion  over 
superstition,  patriotism,  over  tyranny,  and  liberty  over  des- 
potism. It  was  the  triumph  of  the  church  in  the  wilderness  ; 
it  uas  the  triumph  of  the  motto  of  our  fathers  :  "  Qui  transtulit 
sit  f>t  met ;"  (He  who  transplanted  sustains.)  By  the  fall  of 
Quebec,  protestanism,  triumphed  over  popery,  and  the  colonies 
were  free. 

The  French  again  put  forth  their  efforts  to  suppress  the 
growing  power t)f  England,  in  India;  the  conflicts  were  sharp 
and  desperate,  but  the  English  were  triumphant.  The  French 
abetted  a  conflict  of  ilvalry  between  the  Dutch  and  English  in 
.India,  but  the  English  were  again  triumphant. 

>v'H'se  multiplied  successes  of  England  depressed  the  spir- 
it-; of  the  French:  they  in  their  turn  like  the  English,  had  re- 


'        CAPTURE    OF    MONTREAL.   &C.  2  13 

course  to  the  expedient  of  invasion,  to  rouse  the  spirits  cf  the 
nation.  Boats  and  small  craft  wore  assembled  in  the  ports  of 
France,  and  formidable  preparations  made  for  the  desired  ob- 
ject; but  the  vigilance  and  superiority  cf  the  English  navy, 
rendered  abortive  all  such  plans,  and  triumphed  over  the  fleets 
of  France  successively,  as  they  pat  to  sea. 

These  naval  victories,  added  to  the  triumphs  in  America 
and  India,  raised  the  spirit  of  England,  and  shewed  them 
where  their  true  strength  l;iy,  viz.  in  cherishing  the  wars  of 
the  continent  by  liberal  supplies,  and  following  their  naval 
and  commercial  system.  Three  millions  sterling  were  voted 
by  way  of  subsidy  in  Germany,  and  t unity  five  thousand 
troops  to  protect  the  electorate  cf  IIanover;  and  support  the 
king  of  Prussia. 

New  operations  commenced  in  Canada,  with  the  opening  of 
the  spring;  that  part  of  the  army  of  Montcalm,  which  filed  o(T 
towards  Montreal,  in  the  victory  «>f  general  Wolfe,  were  there 
reinforced  by  Canadians  and  Indians,  under  the  command  of 
Monsieur  de  Levi,  who  hud  succeeded  Montcalm  in  the  com- 
mand. With  this  force,  the  French  general  concerted  measures 
to  recover  the  city  of  Quebec. 

He  embarked  his  army  in  the  month  of  April,  with  all  his 
artillery,  under  the  convoy  of  six  stout  frigates,  fell  down  the 
river,  and  appeared  before  Quebec.  The  garrison  under  the 
command  of  the  brave  general  Murray,  which  in  autumn 
consisted  of  five  thousand  men.  was  now  reduced  to  three. 
AVith  this  small  but  intn-pid  force,  general  Murray  marched 
out  upon  the  plains  of  Abraham,  and  gave  the  enemy  battle; 
but  overpowered  by  numbers,  he  was  compelled  to  retire, 
with  the  loss  of  one  thousand  men.  This  effort  gave  a  check 
to  the  enemy,  and  spirit  to  the  garrison;  a  vigorous  siege  and 
defence  commenced.  A  fleet  from  England  arrived  in  the 
Bionth  of  June,  put  an  end  to  tha  siege,  and  the  French  general 
retired  to  Montreal. 

louring  these  operations,  Gen.  Amherst  concerted  n ~.rns- 
ures  for  the  reduction  of  Montreal.  ILJ  gave  orders  to  gene- 
ral Murray  to  embaik  his  army  at  Quebec,  proceed  by  wa- 
ter and  meet  him  at  Montreal.  lie  directed  one  operation 
against  the  Isle  AuNoix;  anoth^  upon  the  enemy  by  the  w;u7 
of  Oswego,  and  took  the  direction  himself  by  the  way"  of  Lake- 
Ontario,  with  his  whole  army  ;  the  movements  all  succeeded, 
end  generals  Amherst  and  Morn-ay  appeared  the  same  day 


,244  1*EAGE   OP  PARIS,    l7'6o. 

before  Montreal,  and  the  detachment  arrived  the  next  day  fion» 
the  Isle  Au  Noix. 

Tlie  city  was  summoned,  a  capitulation  signed,  and  De- 
troit, Michilmachinac,  and  every  other  French  military  post 
or  depot  were  surrendered  to  the  arms  of  his  Britanic  Majesty 
— the  French  troops  were  returned  to  France,  and  the  Cana- 
«!as  cleared. 

This  blow  sealed  the  fate  of  France  in  America,  and  left  her 
nothing  but  the  pitiful  subterfuge  of  exciting  the  murderous 
tomahawk  and  scalping  knifo  of  the  Cherokees,  against  the 
colony  of  South  Carolina.  This  was  soon  suppressed  by  spir- 
ited exertions  ;  the  Cherokcea  punished,  their  towns  burnt,  and 
these  savages  humbled. 

The  town  of  New-Orleans  stood  alone  to  France  a  solitary 
monument  of  all  her  vast  possessions  in  America.  The  war  in 
India  still  raged,  and  the  successes  of  the  English  the  last  year, 
excited  them  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Fondicherry,  which 
was  taken  from  the  French,  J76l.  In  the  midst  of  these  tri- 
umphs died  George  II.  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson 
George  III.,  Oct.  25,  1760. 

With  the  conquest  of  Canada,  and  the  suppression  of  the 
Cherokees,  the  war  closed  in  America.  The  British  forces  re- 
turned  to  England,  excepting  such  as  were  necessary  to  garri- 
son the  military  pests  in  Canada,  and  upon  the  frontier  ;  and 
the  colonies  were  left  to  pursue  their  domestic  repose,  rnjoy 
ibeir  commerce,  and  extend  their  settlements.  The  peace  of 
Paris,  in  1763,  closed  the  war  in  Europe,  America  and  India, 
and  all  Christendom  was  again  hushed  to  repose. 

The  colonies  had  learnt  one  most  important  lessen  this  war, 
that  was,  how  to  unite  their  discordant  interests,  and  render 
private  considerations  subservient  to  the  general  good.  A  les- 
son, which  nothing  but  the  disasters  of  the  first  campaigns  could 
have  taught,  and  brought  them  to  practice.  This  lesson,  the 
poli'-y  of  the  English  government  continued  to  cultivate  and 
strengthen,  by  checking  and  controlling  the  spirit  of  some  of 
the  colonies,  which  appeared  too  independent  in  their  governr 
ments,  and  in  w/ithdrawing  lhc;i  charters,  and  sending  over  gov- 
ernors appointed  bv  the  crown. 

This  soon  sowed  the  seed*  of  jealousy  between  the  crown 
and  colonies,  which  began  to  ripen  early  into  indignation  and 
resentment,  by  frequent  and  severe  collisions,  between  ihe 
people  and  the  governors,  accompanied  with  spirit,  and 
times  outrage, 


CAUSES    OP   THE   REVOLUTIONARY   WAR.  245 

CHAP.  XXXV II. 

€auscs  which  led  to  the  American  Revolution — general  events 
to  the  invasion  of  New  York. 

THE  rapid  settlements  and  population,  together  with  the 
prosperous  commerce  of  the  colonies,  united  to  that  ardent 
active  spirit  of  enterprize  which  had  shone  so  conspicuous 
through  the  war,  began  to  excite  the  attention  of  England. — 
They  foresaw,  that  such  a  combination  of  power,  would  at 
some  future  day  become  independent,  and  that  then  was  the 
time  to  put  on  the  shackles  to  check  and  controul  it.  With 
this  view,  they  commenced  a  system  of  taxation,  by  duties 
on  commerce  in  1764,  and  on  stamps  in  1765,  under  the  flat- 
tering pretext  of  raising  supplies,  to  indemnify  the  expenses 
of  the  war. 

The  colonies  resented  this  infringement  upon  their  rights, 
resisted  the  encroachments  by  spirited  remonstrances,  and 
adopted  this  maxim  :  tk  that  taxation  without  representation, 
was  an  infringement  of  liberty  ;"  their  demand  was — "  with- 
draw your  taxes,. and  leave  the  fiscal  concerns  of  America,  (or 
the  colonies,)  to  be  conducted  upon  the  floor  of  their  own 
councils  ;>?  here  they  were  at  issue.  Sprung  from  one  common 
stock,  the  same  blood  flowed  in  the  veins,  the  same  spirit  fired 
the  breast  of  both  parties — and  this  was  the  result  : . 

Virginia  resisted  by  spirited  resolves.  May,  I765o 

Virginia,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland  and 
South  Carolina,  sent  a  representation  and  formed  a  colonial 
congress  at  New  York,  October,  1765. 

This,  like  the  grand  assembly  at  Albany,  gave  union, 
strength,  and  spirit  to  the  colonies;  tumults  commenced  in 
Boston,  and  spread  through  the  country  ;  acts  of  non-importa- 
tion were  passed,  which  lessened  the  imports  from  Britain  this 
year,  8 80,62 1/.  1766. 

At  this  time  a  general  estimate  of  free  white  population  in 
the  colonies  was  926,000,  extended  on  the  sea  coast>  from 
Georgia  to  the  province  of  Maine.  The  dignified  and  manly 
resistance  of  the  colonies,,  caused  the  repeal  of  the  duties  on 
stamps,  1766. 

An  act  of  parliament  imposed  a  duty  on  paper  and  glass, 
Fane,  .  ]?6Tr 


246  CAUSES    OP   THE    REVOLUTIONARY    WAR. 

This  again  roused  the  passions  of  the  colonies.  Circular 
letters,  tumults,  &c.  became  the  order  of  the  day  generally 
in  1768. 

Arts  of  non-importation  became  genera!  in  1169. 

The  British  force  stationed  at  Boston,  fired  on  the  populace, 
and  caused  the  famous  massacre  of  Boston,  1770. 

This  outrage  spread  such  a  flame  through  the  colonies,  that 
the  British  government  repealed  all  the  taxes  this  year  excepting 
the  duty  of  3d  per  pound  on  tea.  This  led  to  associations 
through  the  colonies,  not  to  drink  tea  ;  and  all  ihose  who  vio- 
lated these  associations,  were  held  and  considered  as  traitors 
and  lories. 

An  armed  schooner  belonging  to  the  British,  was  burnt  by  a 
mob  in  disguise  at  Rhode  Island,  1771  • 

Tea  sent  back  by  some  colonies,  1772. 

A  cargo  of  tea  was  seized  in  the  port  of  Boston  by  a  mob  in 
disguise,  and  thrown  into  the  dock,  1773. 

Upon  the  news  of  this,  the  government  of  England  sent  out 
a  en  val  and  laud  force,  and  took  possession  of  the  port  of  Bos- 
ton, under  the  command  of  Gen.  Gage,  1774. 

The  colonies,  fired  with  indignation  at  this  outrage  on  their 
liberties,  assembled  a  general  congress  at  Philadelphia,  and 
circled  Peyton  Randolph,  President,  and  Charles  Thomson,. 
Secretary,  September  5,  1774. 

Congress  parsed  several  resolutions  highly  important  to  tlie 
interest  of  the  colonies,  and  dissolved,  October  26. 

They  were  now  resolved  to  repel  force  by  force,  and  an  ac» 
tion  commenced  at  Lexington  and  Concord,  \  etween  a  detach- 
ment of  the  Brhish  forces  in  Boston,  and  a  scattered  col- 
lection of  miiitia  of  those  places  ;  the  British,  grilled  by  a 
scattering  fire  from  the  stone  walls,  hedges  nnd  other  coverts 
made  a  hastv  retreat  into  Boston,  and  left  the  field  to  the  vi(v 
tors,  Apri  19,  1775. 

The  news  of  this  conflict  spread  like  lightning  through  the 
country  :  hill  illumined  hill,  and  man  eletterized  man.  The 
heroes  of  the  old  war  left  their  teams  in  the  field,  and  their 
ploughs  standing  in  the  furrows,  and  n  their  rustic  dress,  re- 
paiied  to  the  field  of  action,  and  enrolled  themselves  in  the 
ranks  of  their  country. 

The  mad  councils  of  England,  and  frantic  system  of  their 
measures,  hud  now  armed  the  nation  against  itself,  Here  com- 


CONGRESS   OP    1774.  247 

aaenced  a  sanguinary  conflict  of  liberty  against  usurpation, 
on  those  very  fields  which  the  fathers  (driven  by  the  persecu- 
tions of  their  own  country)  had  wrested  from  the  savages  of 
the  forest,  and  where  they  had  planted  the  pure  seeds  of  the 
refoi  mation  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  before ;  here  the  sons 
of  those-sires  were  summoned  to  arms  in  defence  of  their  altars, 
their  arms  and  their  firesides,  to  repel  the  murderous  dominion 
of  Britain  :  the  conflict  was  desperate,  but  the  issue  was  glori- 
rious. 

Without  arms  or  discipline,  without  money,  without  credit,, 
without  allies,  without  military  stores,  and  without  union  ; — 
with  a  scattered  population,  not  then  exceeding  one  million  ; 
the  sons  of  the  puritans  entered  the  li«ts  with  the  gigantic 
power  of  Britain,  then  mistress  of  the  seas,  and  arbiter  of  the 
world. 

Their  first  step  was,  to  collect  an  army  ;  this  was  effected 
by  an  assemblage  of  the  militia  of  the  vicinity  generally,  and  by 
detachments  from  the  militia  of  the  neighboring  states,  arid  next 
from  the  colonies  generally.  The  Lnglish  were  invested  in 
the  town  of  Boston,  under  the  command  of  Gen.  ^  ard,  and  at 
the  same  time  he  sent  off' a  detachment,  and  seized  fort  Tiron- 
deroga,  May  10th,  1775  Their  next  step  was  to  promote 
union.  A  Congress  was  elected  from  ail  the  colonies,  and  as- 
sembled in  Philadelphia,  JM.'fy  10th,  1775  The  resolves  of 
this  Congress  wi  I  ever  stand  on  the  historic  pa«re,  a  splendid 
monument  of  the  wisdom,  firmness,  dignity  and  spirit  of  the 
American  character. 

They  settled  the  fundamental  principles  of  union,  action  and 
support;  and  upon  the  motion  of  two  members  to  enter  their 
protest  against  the  measures  of  the  congress,  the  spirit  of  the 
day  was  expressed  by  that  old  patriot,  Samuel  Adams,  of  Bos- 
ton :  "  I  should  advice  persisting  in  our  struggle  for  liberty, 
though  it  were  revealed  from  heaven,  that  nine  hundred  and 
ninety  nine  were  to  perish,  arid  only  one  of  a  thousand  to  sur- 
vive, and  retain  his  liberty.  One  such  free  man,  must  possess 
more  virtue*  and  enjoy  more  happiness,  than  one  thousand 
slaves — let  him  propagate  his  like,  and  transmit  to  them  what 
he  hath  so  nobly  preserved.'  This  was  a  fair  sample  of  the 
general  spirit  of  congress,  and  of  the  nation. 

During  these  transactions,  great  efforts  were  made,  both  in 
America  and  hnglan4,  to  effect  a  reconciliation,  anil  .heal  the 
diffidences.  The  earl  of  Chatham  stood  forth  in  parliament, 
the  champion  of  virtue,  and  his  country's  interest;  his  rear* 


248  BATTLE  OP  BUNKER'S  HILL. 

soning  was  pure,  nervous  and  forcible ;  and  to  an  audience 
with  hearts  open  to  conviction,  would  have  been  irresistible  5 
but  it  was  lost  upon  parliament,  and  with  it  the  colonies  were 
lost. 

Congress  now  assumed  the  style  of  the  twelve  United  Colo- 
nies, June  7>  and  elected  George  Washington,  of  Virginia, 
commander  in  chief  of  the  American  armies,  June  15th;  he 
accepted  the  command,  and  repaired  to  Cambridge.  The  con- 
gratulations which  he  received,  and  his  dignified  replies,  inter- 
ested the  feelings,  confidence  and  affections  of  the  nation. 

.Method,  order  and  discipline  began  to  be  felt  through  the 
army,  and  the  enemy  were  completely  invested  in  Boston. 
Congress  at  this  time  published  a  declaration,  by  the  way  of 
manifesto,  unfolding  to  the  world,  the  causes  of  the  contest — 
and  the  resolutions  of  the  colonies.  They  drew  and  signed  a 
petition  to  the  king,  and  an  address  to  the  inhabitants  of  Kng- 
land  ;  recommended  the  general  forming  and  training  the  militia^ 
throughout  the  colonies,  and  a  detachment  of  one  fourth  as 
minute  men,  for  all  sudden  emergencies  ;  and  called  the  atten- 
tion of  the  colonies  to  their  armed  vessels,  and  the  defence  of 
their  seaports. 

They  established  a  general  post-office,  to  extend  from  Geor- 
gia to  Mame,  and  appointed  Benjamin  Franklin  postmas- 
ter general  :  they  also  established  a  hospital  for  20,000  men. 
These  general  outlines  being  settled,  all  parties  prepared  for 
action. 

The  torch  of  war  was  again  kindled  by  the  destructive  bat- 
tle of  Bunker's  Hill,  and  the  cor.flagration  of  Gharlestown. 
The  flames  fla.-hed  through  the  country,  kindled  afresh  the 
spirit  of  patriotism,  and  the  ardour  of  revenge;  and  the  public 
feeling  was  alive  to  the  contest,  from  Georgia  to  Maine.  This 
was  one  of  the  most  important  movements  in  the  American 
revolution. 

The  operations  io  the  siege  of  Boston,  were  changed  into  a 
regular  approach,  for  the  purpose  of  attempting  a  general  at- 
tack ;  and  at  the  same  time  an  expedition  was  formed,  and 
sent  up  the  Kermebec  river  into  Canada,  under  Col.  Arnold,  to 
eo-operate  with  the  main  army,  which  were  advancing  by  the 
way  of  Lake  Champlain  and  Montreal,  under  Gen.  Montgom- 
ery, to  reduce  the  city  of  Quebec.  General  Gage  retired. 
from  the  command  of  Boston,  and  Gen.  Howe  suceeeded? 
-Sept.  1775. 

The  destruction  of  the  town  of  Falmouth,  by  the  British,  on 


EVACUATION  »P  BOSTON.  549 

ike  eastern  shores  of  Massachusetts,  again  kindled  the  flames  of 
revenge,  October,  1775;  and  the  ardor  of  the  occasion  wag 
seized,  for  an  attack  on  Boston.  To  facilitate  the  operations, 
several  rich  storeships  from  England,  laden  with  ordnance, 
small  arms,  camp  equipage  and  military  stores,  were  captured 
by  the  Americans,  and  conveyed  to  the  army. 

During  these  movements,  the  army,  destined  to  the  capture 
of  Canada,  under  Gen.  Montgomery,  proceeded  by  the  way  of 
Lake  Champlain,  took  Montreal,  (JNovember  J5thJ  and  the 
other  military  posts  in  its  vicinity — proceeded  down  the  river, 
and  joined  Colonel  Arnold,  about  the  1st  December  ;  they 
commenced  an  attack  upon  the  city  by  assault ;  it  failed — and 
Gen.  Montgomery  fell  in  the  attempt.  The  siege  was  con- 
tinued, and  the  army  reinforced  from  Montreal  and  the  states  ; 
where  they  suffered  severely  by  the  small  pox,  and  the  severi- 
ties of  winter.  In  the  month  of  May,  they  abandoned  the  siege, 
upon  the  arrival  of  succor  from  England,  and  returned  to  Mon- 
treal . 

General  Washington,  in  the  spring,  erected  a  redoubt  upon 
Dorchester  heights,  and  threatened  to  bombard  Boston. — Thi* 
approach  excited  alarm,  and  Gen.  Howe  made  immediate  pre- 
parations to  evacuate  the  town  :  he  assembled  his  fleet,  embark- 
ed his  troops,  and  set  sail  for  Halifax. 

General  Washington,  penetrating  the  design  of  the  enemy, 
drew  off  his  army,  retired  to  New  York,  and  made  preparations 
to  receive  him  ;  passed  over  with  his  army  to  Long  Island,, 
and  fortified  the  Narrows  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  enemy 
into  tii£  harbour  of  New  York. 


CHAP.  XXXVIII. 

Revolution  csntimicd  to  the  capture  of  Gen.  Prcscot  at  Rhode 
j  September  ,  1777- 


ABOUT  the  first  of  January,  1776,  the  Liverpool  frigate  ar- 
rived off  Norfolk,  (Virginia)  from  England,  and  laid  that  rich 
commercial  town  in  ashes  ;  and  in  the  month  of  February, 
the  British  brgan  their  depredations  in  North  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  which  were  serious  in  their  operations  and  conse- 
quences. In  the  month  of  June,  a  strong  British  naval  fcrce 
made  an  attack  upon  Charleston  (S.  C.)  ;  they  were  opposed 


250  CAPTURE  ©F  NEW-YORK, 

with  great  firmness,  and  obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise, 
with  severe  loss. 

Gen.  Clinton  and  Lord  Cornwallis  expected  to  have  landed 
a  strong  force,  and  commenced  their  southern  conquests  at 
this  time  ;  but  the  severe  losses  sustained  by  their  fleet,  defeat- 
ed the  enterprise,  and  they  retired  to  New  York.  In  the  month 
of  August,  lord  Dunmoresent  off  his  negro  booty  of  about  1000, 
to  Bermuda,  withdrew  from  Virginia,  and  repaired  to  New- 
York. 

On  the  12th  of  July,  lord  Howe  arrived  at  the  Hook  from 
England,  by  the  way  of  Halifax,  with  a  fleet  and  reinforce- 
ments, and  charged  with  a  commission  to  ncgociate  separately 
and  individually  with  the  states,  for  a  return  of  peace.  lie 
made  known  the  duties  of  the  commissioners,  to  Gen  Washing- 
ton and  to  Congress,  and  they  were  circulated  through  the 
country,  in  the  public  prints.  Congress  at  the  same  time  met 
the  commission  with  a  publication  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, which  passed  the  4th  of  July;  the  campaign  was 
opened,  and  the  armies  put  in  motion. 

Gen.  Howe  landed  his  army  upon  Long-Island,  supported  by 
generals  Clinton,  Grant,  earl  Percy  and  lord  Cornwallis,  and 
commenced  his  operations  against  Gen.  Washington,  who  had 
chosen  this  position,  to  cover  New- York. 

The  action  of  Flatbush,  compelled  General  Washington  to 
retire  with  loss,  and  under  cover  of  the  night,  cross  over  into 
New  York.  'This  he  accomplished  by  a  m;>st  masterly  move- 
ment, without  loss;  left  a  detachment  for  the  protection  of  the 
city  :  garrisoned  the  forts  at  Haelleai  and  Kingsbritlge,  and 
made  a  stand.  On  the  15th  of  September,  Gen.  Howe  took 
possession  of  New- York,  <»nd  began  his  operations. 

General  Washington  invested  New-York  until  the  1.8th- of 
October  :  he  then  abandoned  his  position  to  defeat  an  enter- 
prise concerted  by  general  Howe  to  cut  off  his  communication 
with  New-England,  by  landing  a  strong  force  in  his  rear. 
Gen.  Washington  retired  to  White  Plains,  where  he  sustained 
an  assault  from  general  Howe,  which  was  firmly  resisted,  and 
General  Washington  re-tired  to  the  high  grounds,  and  took  a 
strong  position.  G-  n.  Howe  retired  to  Kingsbridge,  coiwmr-n.- 
eed  an  attack  upon  the  American  forts,  and  carried  by  assault, 
such  as  we.e  not  abandoned  by  trie  Americans,  and  butchered 
tin-  garritons, 

The  fall  of  .these  posts  opened  the  passpige  of  the  Hudson 
to  general  Howe;  Gen.  Washington  was  compelled  to  cross 
ever  into  New  Jersey,  and  retire  to  Newark.  The  losses  in 


RETREAT   OP   GEN.    WASHINGTON.  251 

the  action  at  Flatbush,  at  White  Plains,  and  in  the  forts  5  the 
departure  of  the  Massachusetts  militia,  whose  term  of  service 
had  expired  ;  and  the  gloomy  state  of  the  army,  retreating  be- 
fore a  strong  victorious  British  force,  rendered  the  American 
cause  desperate,  at  this  eventful  moment. 

General  Washington  could  assemble  at  Newark,  only  thir- 
ty-five hundred  troops,  to  support  the  cause  of  liberty  against 
the  whole  British  army,  of  about  ten  thousand.  Even  Gen. 
Washington  himself  gave  up  alias  lost,  and  with  his  most  con- 
fidential officers,  talked  of  retiring  hastily  into  Virginia,  «r 
beyond  the  Alleghany,  for  security. 

This  scene  was  distressing  ;  a  whole  week  passed  before  gen- 
eral Howe  joined  lord  Cornwallis,  and  commenced  his  opera- 
tions ;  and  during  all  this  time,  not  one  company,  even  of  Jer- 
sey militia,  joined  the  army. 

On  the  28th  of  November  Gen.  Washington  retired  from 
Newark  to  Brunswick  :  lord  Cornwallis  entered  it  almost  at  the 
same  hour  ;  Gen.  Washington  retired  to  Princeton  :  his  lord- 
ship held  his  position  at  Brunswick  according  to  orders. 

At  this  critical  moment,  the  service  of  the  Jersey  and  Mary- 
land brigades  expired,  and  they  withdrew  against  the  most 
pressing  remonstrances* 

October  7,  Gen.  Washington  retired  from  Princeton,  as  lord 
Cornwallis  entered  it,  and  the  next  day  his  lordship  entered 
Trenton,  just  as  General  Washington  had  crossed  the  Dela- 
ware, about  midnight.  Gen.  Washington  secured  the  boats  up- 
on ihe  Delaware,  and  prevented  his  lordship's  pursuit. 

Lord  Howe  issued  the  proclamation  of  the  king's  commis- 
sioners, offering  pardon  and  peace  to  all  who  should  submit  in 
sixty  days. 

The  low  state  of  the  army,  and  of  the  public  feeling,  ren- 
dered this  proclamation  highly  alarming  at  this  time.  Men  of 
distinction,  in  great  numbers,  in  that  part  of  the  country,  em* 
braced  the  overture,  and  made  th^ir  submission. 

General  Lee,  who  harassed  the  rear  of  the  British  army  with 
a  small  force,  was  surprised  and  taken  Dec.  13,  and  the  British 
boasted  that  they  had  taken  the  palladium  of  America,  and 
considered  the  contest  at  a  close. 

Under  this  pressure  of  distress,  well  might  an  army  deg- 
pond,  reduced  almost  to  a  cypher,  without  pay,  without 
clothes,  without  supplies,  and  staining  the  snow  with  their 
blood  stained  steps,  as  they  ilcd  before  th*3  victorious  enemy  5 
well  might  their  country  despond,  when  they  saw  their  liber- 


BATTLB    6 

ties  waste  away,  and  about  to  expire  under  the  pressure  of  an 
overwhelming  foe. 

At  this  eventful  crisis,  General  Washington,  by  the  assist- 
ance of  general  Mifflin,  collected  a  body  of  Pennsylvania  mi- 
litia, from  Philadelphia  and  the  interior,  and  gave  support  to 
his  army.  With  this  force)  he  resolved  to  strike  a  bold 
stroke,  and  attempt  to  fecover  the  losses  and  spirits  of  the 
army,  and  of  the  nation ;  accordingly  he  took  advantage  of 
the  enemy's  not  passing  the  river  in  their  pursuit,  and  pre 
pared  to  act  on  the  offensive. 

On  the  night  of  the  25th  of  December,  1776,  General 
Washington  recrossed  the  Delaware,  under  cover  of  a  thick 
snow  storm,  and  commenced  an  attack, — gained  a  signal  vic- 
tory— put  the  enemy  to  flight — and  took  op  the  position  at 
Trenton,  with  about  one  thousand  prisoners,  with  all  their 
«amp  utensils  and  arms. 

Upon  the  recovery  of  the  enemy,  under  a  strong  reinforce- 
ment, General  Washington  sent  off  his  prisoners  into  the 
country,  and  retired  to  Princeton  ;  where  he  exposed  his  per- 
son between  two  fires}  repulsed  the  enemy,  and  pursued  them 
to  Brunswick. 

Lord  Cornwallis  assembled  flit  his  forces,  made  a  bold  stand, 
and  General  Washington  took  up  his  position  at  JVlorristown. 
The  depressed  state  of  the  army  when  they  evacuated  JNew- 
Jersey,  had  not  only  alarmed  the  nation,  but  congress  ;  and  the 
sudden  successes  resulting  from  the  affair  at  Trenton,  had  not 
enly  rekindled  the  spirit  of  the  country,  but  called  forth  an  act 
of  congress,  empowering  general  Washington  "to  collect  six- 
teen thousand  infantry,  three  thousand  horse,  three  regiments 
of  artillery,  and  a  corps  of  engineers,  appoint  their  officers  and 
establish  their  pay  :  to  call  from  all  the  states  such  militia  as  he 
shall  judge  necessary  ;  form  such  depots  of  magazines  and 
stores  as  he  may  think  proper;  to  displace  all  officers  under  a 
brigadier,  and  fill  all  vacancies  ;  to  take  whatever  he  may  want 
for  the  service,  wherever  he  may  be.  paying  reasonably  there- 
for ;  and  to  confine  all  who  shall  refuse  the  paper  currency  ;  ail 
this  for  the  term  of  six  months." 

Despair  had  roused  Congress  from  their  cautious  .security, 
and  the  successes  of  Trenton  and  Princeton  had  futfy  evinced, 
that  under  God,  Washington  must  be  the  saviour  of  his  coun- 
try. Thus  light  arose  out  of  this  thick  darkness,  and  order  out 
of  this  confusion,  and  the  foundation  was  laid  oil  which  th's 
liberty  of  America  was  secured* 


CAPTURE    OF    GEN.    PRESCOT.  253 

The  brutality  of  the  British,  had  now  roused  the  indignation 
f  New-Jersey  ;  the  fire  of  Lexington  was  again  rekindled, 
nd  spread  through  the  nation ;  Lord  Cornwallis  was 
losely  invested  in  his  camp  at  Amboy,  after  being  surprised 
nd  driven  from  Elizabethtown  with  great  loss;  and  the 
lass  of  the  people  were  alive  to  the  contest ;  the  state  was  gen- 
rally  cleared,  and  the  winter  passed  without  any  important  op- 
rations. 

During  these  movements  in  New-Jersey,  the  American  army 
nder  generals  Gates  and  Arnold,  retreated  out  of  Canada,  be- 
)re  sir  Guy  Carleton,  and  General  Burgoyne,  which  will  be 
oticed  under  the  northern  expedition. 

Gen.  Howe  took  the  field  in  person,  and  embarked  the  heavy 
aggage  of  thearmy  from  Amboy  for  New-York,  and  prepared 
j  revenge  the  affair  of  Trenton  upon  Gen.  Washington ;  he 
lade  a  feint  to  embark  his  army,  and  by  a  sudden  movement, 
ecalled  the  troops,  formed  and  commenced  a  sudden  attack 
pon  a  detachment  of  the  American  army  ;  but  was  compelled 
)  retire  with  loss,  and  embark  his  army  on  to  Staten  Island, 
une  30,  1777.  ' 

Thus  ended  the  expedition  into  Jersey,  an  expedition  in 
'hich,  when  viewed  in  its  operations  and  effects,  it  must  be 
vident  to  all,  the  hand  of  God  was  most  conspicuously  dis-* 
layed  for  the  salvation  of  the  American  cause ;  turned  the 
ouncils  of  her  enemies  into  foolishness,  and  out  of  weakness 
rought  forth  strength. 

Tryon,  the  tory  governor  of  New- York,  made  an  attempt 
•ith  a  strong  force  from  New- York,  in  the  month  of  April,  to 
estroy  the  American  stores  at  Danbury,  and  succeeded  gene- 
illy  ;  the  party  was  severely  harrassed  by  general  Woster, 
'ho  fell  with  glory  in  pursuing  the  enemy,  and  by  general  Ar- 
old,  who  distinguished  himself  in  this  affair.  Governor  Tryon 
mbarked  his  force,  and  returned  to  New- York. 

General  Howe  remained  in  New- York,  assembled  his  fleet, 
elected  a  detachment  of  his  best  troops,  making  a  strong 
nd  well  appointed  force,  with  ordnance  and  stores  for  a  dis- 
mt  expedition,  embarked  on  board  his  fleet,  and  fell  down  to 
le  Hook 

At  this  time,  whilst  general  Howe  was  manoeuvering  with 

is  fleet  to  deceive  the  American  general  with  regard  to  his 

estinntion,  a  party  of  volunteers  and   militia   under  colonel 

:arton,  passed  over  on  to  Rhode-Island,  surprised  Gen.  Pres- 

22 


254  EXPEDITION   TO    PHILADELPHIA. 

cot  in  his  quarters  at  Newport,  and  brought  him  off  safe,  with 
one  of  his  aids.  Gen.  Prescot,  with  a  strong  British  force,  had 
taken  possession  of  Newport  in  December,  1776,  about  the 
time  of  the  battle  of  Trenton. 

The  expedition  of  Gen.  Howe  now  claims  our  attention. 


CHAP.  XXXIX. 

Revolution  continued,  from  the  expedition  of  general  Howe  to 
Philadelphia,  September  1777,  to  the  battle  of  Camden  in 
North  Carolina. 

IN  1777?  general  Howe  embarked  about  sixteen  thousand 
troops  on  board  his  fleet  at  New- York,  and  put  to  sea  upon  a 
secret  expedition.  General  Washington  detached  the  flower  of 
the  American  army  into  the  state  of  New-Jersey,  to  watch  his 
motions,  and  to  be  in  readiness  to  cover  Philadelphia. 

General  Howe,  after  several  movements  with  his  fleet  up- 
on the  coast,  entered  the  Chesapeake  bay,  and  landed  his 
troops  at  the  ferry  of  Elk.  General  Washington  advanced  to 
meet  him  ;  an  action  was  fought  at  Chad's-Ford,  September 
llth,  and  general  Howe  was  successful ;  general  Washington 
retired,  and  after  several  days  manceuvering,  general  Howe 
entered  Philadelphia,  September  26th,  and  congress  removed 
to  Lancaster. 

On  the  4th  of  October,  the  action  of  Germ  an  town  was 
fought  with  a  detachment  of  the  British  j  the  Americans 
were  successful,  and  the  detachment  retired  to  Philadelphia, 
where  they  were  closely  invested  through  the  winter.  The 
American  army  was,  at  this  time,  in  the  most  distressed  situ- 
ation ;  without  clothes,  shoes,  stockings,  and  even  breeches 
and  blankets  :  more  than  two  thousand  were  marched  without 
shoes,  through  frost  and  snow,  leaving  the  traces  of  their  march 
by  their  blood.  t 

During  these  movements,  lord  Howe  moved  his  fleet  round 
into  the  Delaware — which  occasioned  the  conflicts  of  fort  Mif- 
flin  and  Red  bank  ;  and  the  protection  of  the  fleet,  secured  the 
communication  with  the  sea. 

The  last  season,  general  Burgoyne  had  been  sent  out 
from  England,  to  Canada,  with  a  strong  force  to  co-operate 
with  the  British  forces  at  New- York,  and  form  a  junctios 

i 


CAPTURE    OF    GEN.    BURGOYNE.  255 

at  Albany.  Sir  Guy  Carlton,  then  governor  of  Canada,  with  the 
aid  of  general  Burgoyne,  soon  recovered  the  province — and  the 
American  army  retired  by  the  way  of  lake  Champlain.  Winter 
closed  the  scene.  General  Burgoyne  pursued,  the  next  season, 
and  appeared  on  the  plains  of  Saratoga,  (state  of  New-York,) 
in  the  month  of  October  :  at  the  same  time,  a  detachment  of 
the  naval  and  land  forces  at  New- York,  proceeded  up  the  river, 
and  burnt  the  town  of  Esopus.  This  again  excited  the  public 
ieeling. 

The  successful  action  of  Bennington,  against  a  detachment 
of  the  army  of  Burgoyne,  had  given  high  spirits  in  that  vicinity  : 
the  American  army  under  general  Gates,  was  reinforced  with 
fresh  drafts  of  militia,  and  was  soon  able  to  invest  general 
Burgoyne  in  his  camp,  at  Saratoga.  Alarmed  at  his  critical 
situation,  he  attempted  to  retire  ;  this  was  impracticable — the 
Americans  had  destroyed  all  the  bridges  :  he  next  proposed 
to  give  battle — this  became  desperate;  the  Americans  were 
strong,  their  spirits  were  high,  and  their  attacks  were  sharp  and 
desperate.  Struck,  with  astonishment,  general  Burgoyne  pro- 
posed to  surrender;  a  capitulation  was  signed,  and  the  whole 
British  army  laid  down  their  arms,  and  became  prisoners  of 
war,  October  1 6, 1777. 

The  general  depression  which  had  alarmed  the  public  mind, 
during  these  formidable  operations,  was  removed  at  a  blow : 
again  a  general  impulse  was  given  to  the  public  feeling:  the 
plan  of  severing  the  eastern  and  western,  (or  southern)  states, 
fell  with  the  fall  of  Burgoyne,  and  new  energies  and  new  efforts 
were  diffused  through  the  nation.  A  success  so  novel,  and 
yet  so  important,  humbled  the  pride  of  Britain,  in  her  councils — 
gave  a  lustre  to  the  American  arms  at  home  and  abroad,  and 
closed  the  campaign  of  1777. 

France,  Spain  and  Holland  now  became  parties  in  the  war. 
In  the  course  of  the  winter,  commissioners  from  England  ap- 
peared at  Philadelphia,  with  artful  terms  of  accommodation,  to 
weaken  the  union  and  energies  of  America  :  these  were  proper- 
ly treated.  At  the  opening  of  the  spring,  sir  Henry  Clinton, 
seeing  no  advantage  resulting  from  his  position  at  Philadelphia, 
prepared  to  return  to  New- York. 

About  the  1st  of  June,  1778,  sir  Henry  Clinton  evacuated 
Philadelphia,  and  took  up  his  march.  General  Washington 
pressed  close  upon  his  rear  :  both  armies  were  about  ten 
thousand  strong.  At  Monmouth,  in  New-Jersey,  general 
Washington  came  up  with  sir  Henry,  and  ordered  general 
Lee,  at  the  head  of  the  advance  guard,  to  commence  an  at- 


256  NAVAL    ACTION   OFF    NEWPORT. 

tack,  for  the  purpose  of  a  general  action,  and  assured  him  of  his 
support  with  the  main  army.  The  failure  of  this  attack,  by 
Gen.  Lee's  doubtful  movements,  caused  the  failure  of  the  action. 
Gen.  Lee  was  tried  by  a  court  martial,  which  deprived  him  of 
his  command.  Sir  Henry  withdrew  in  the  night,  and  the 
Americans  who  had  laid  on  their  arms  impatient  for  the  attack 
in  the  morning,  were  disappointed  of  their  hopes. 

Sir  Henry  retired  toy  forced  marches  to  Sandy-Hook,  where 
he  was  met  by  the  fleet  under  lord  Howe,  embarked  his  array 
and  passed  into  New-York,  July  5. 

At  this  time  a  French  fleet  arrived  at  Delaware  bay,  for  the 
purpose  of  blockading  the  British  squadron  ;  learning  their  de- 
parture for  New- York,  they  pursued  and  arrived  off  the  hook, 
where  they  received  a  communication  from  general  Washington, 
with  a  request  to  repair  to  Newport,  and  co-operate  with  the 
Americans,  in  reducing  the  British  force  under  general  Prescott. 
They  repaired  to  Newport  accordingly.  The  British  fleet  fol- 
lowed from  New- York  and  appeared  off  the  harbor.  The  French 
fleet  slipped  their  cables,  put  to  sea,  and  met  the  English  ;  an 
action  commenced — both  fleets  were  severely  shattered ;  the 
English  withdrew,  and  retired  to  New- York,  and  the  French 
to  Boston,  to  refit,  and  from  thence  to  the  West-Indies  ;  the  at- 
tack upon  Rhode-Island  failed. 

Sept.  1779,  a  French  fleet  of  20  sail  of  the  line,  frigates, 
&c.  was  destined  against  the  Island  of  Grenada,  (in  the  West- 
Indies.)  At  the  request  of  Gen.  Lincoln,  who  was  then  post- 
ed at  Charleston,  (S.  C.)  Count  De  Estaing,  the  French 
Admiral,  repaired  to  the  American  coast,  and  co-operated 
with  Gen.  Lincoln,  in  an  attempt  to  dislodge  the  English 
from  Savannah  in  Georgia.  This  was  the  first  foreign  aid 
the  Americans  had  received,  excepting  the  attempt  upon 
Rhode-Island  in  1778,  and  opened  the  way  for  future,  and 
more  important  operations. 

The  attempt  failed,  and  the  French  Admiral  withdrew  from 
the  American  coast,  and  repaired  to  his  station  in  the  West- 
Indies.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  upon  the  departure  of  the  French 
fleet,  resumed  his  southern  enterprize,  and  dispatched  admiral 
Arbuthnot  on  the  26th  of  December,  1779,  with  a  squadron, 
detached  from  the  fleet  at  New-York,  to  recover  the  losses  of 
1776,  at  Charleston.  For  this  purpose  he  also  embarked  a 
land  force  of  7000  men,  under  his  command,  accompanied  by 
lord  Cornwallis,  to  seize  on  the  city  of  Charleston,  (S.  C.)  a;.d 
subdue  the  southern  states. 


CAPTURE  OP  CHARLESTON,  S.  C.  257 

Sir  Henry  proceeded  to  his  destined  port,  landed  his  troops, 
md  carried  the  city  of  Charleston  by  a  regular  siege.  The 
garrison,  under  the  brave  Gen.  Lincoln,  made  a  dignified  de- 
fence, but  were  overpowered  by  a  commanding  superiority 
of  force,  and  made  prisoners  of  war,  March  4,  1798. 

The  illustrious  Gen.  Greene,  was  detached  to  the  southward, 
to  counteract  this  formidable  expedition.  Lord  Cornwallis 
penetrated  into  South-Carolina,  and  the  cavalry  attached  to 
the  expedition,  under  the  command  of  Lieut.  Col.  Tarlton, 
scoured  and  ravaged  the  country. 

At  this  time  the  affairs  of  America  had  again  become  des- 
perate. The  hard  winter  of  1780,  set  in  with  all  its  severity, 
immediately  upon  the  departure  of  the  expedition  ;  and  the 
privations  and  distresses  of  the  army  under  Gen.  Washington, 
were  inexpressible  through  the  winter  and  spring  ;  a  mutiny 
ensu  d,  and  the  cause  of  liberty  was  in  danger  of  being  lost 
forever. 

Gen.  Greene  wrote  to  Gen.  Washington  from  Maryland,  that, 
fi  the  want  of  money,  supplies,  horses,  &c.  would  render  it 
impossible  to  provide  for  the  march  of  the  Maryland  troops." 
These  embarrasrnents  greatly  retarded  the  southern  opera- 
tions. 

During  this  distressing  period,  the  young  marquis  La  Fay- 
ette,  arrived  at  head  quarters,  from  France ;  the  tidings  he 
brought  gave  new  spirits  to  Gen.  Washington,  and  to  con- 
gress. On  his  passage  from  Boston  to  France,  he  narrowly 
escaped  a  conspiracy,  formed  to  assassinate  him,  by  some 
British  sailors  on  board  the  ship.  Through  his  personal  ef- 
forts in  France,  he  negociated  for  America,  supplies  adapted 
to  her  wants  ;  and  announced  that  a  fleet  and  armament 
would  soon  follow  him  from  France. 

Congress  resolved,  "  that  bills  be  immediately  drawn  on 
Dr.  Franklin,  minister  at  Paris,  for  twenty-five  thousand  dol- 
lars, and  on  Mr.  Jay,  minister  at  Madrid,  for  twenty-five  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  the  money  applied  to  the  immediate  benefit  of 
the  armies." 

The  darkness  which  hung  over  the  political  horizon  of 
America,  was  dispelled  by  this  auspicious  event ;  extensive 
arrangements  were  made  to  fill  up  the  armies  by  regulars,  and 
militia,  and  supplies  were  extensively  collected.  At  the 
same  time,  the  arms  of  Lord  Cornwallis  spread  terror  and 
consternation  throughout  the  southern  states  ;  South  Carolina 
fell  in  regular  succession,  into  a  state  of  submission  to  the 

22* 


258  BATTLE    OP    CAMDEN. 

arms  of  the  conqueror,  aiy\  its  inhabitants  were  acknowledged 
and  protected  as  British  subjects,  under  a  regular  government. 
During  these  operations,  Sir  Henry  Clinton  set  sai!  for 
New  York  with  part  of  the  forces,  and  left  Lord  CornwalUs 
with  4000  regulars,  to  finish  the  conquest  of  the  South.  Up- 
on the  capture  of  Gen.  Lincoln,  Gen.  Gates,  then  in  Virginia, 
was  appointed  to  succeed  him,  and  immediately  repaired  to  his 
command. 

Amongst  the  distressing  embarrassments  of  the  nation  at 
this  time,  the  depreciated  paper  money  was  not  one  of  the 
least  :  to  obviate  this,  Congress  called  in  by  taxes,  two  hun- 
dred millions  of  dollars  and  burnt  it,  and  redeemed  it  by  a  new 
emission  at  the  rate  of  one  dollar  for  twenty.  This  plan  suc- 
ceeded, and  thousands  of  the  best  patriots  of  the  nation  were 
ruined  bv  the  depreciated  redemption  of  a  currency,  they  had 
endeavoured  to  support  at  par.  At  this  time  Mr.  Adams  left 
London  (\\here  he  had  been  sent  in  1776  to  negociate  a  peace,) 
and  went  by  the  way  of  Spain  to  Holland,  to  bring  to  a  close 
the  plans  of  alliance  and  commerce,  which  had  been  two  years 
in  agitation. 

Lord  Cornwallis  having  overrun  South  Carolina,  and  set- 
tled a  system  of  government,  began  to  penetrate  into  North 
Carolina.  The  troops  under  Gen.  Gates  were  so  miserably 
supplied  with  men  and  stores,  that  they  maintained  a  feeble 
resistance,  and  with  an  army  of  four  thousand,  (less  than  one 
thousand  of  which  were  continental  troops,)  he  directed  his 
march  for  Camden  in  North  Carolina. 

Lord  Cornwallis  having  reached  Camden  the  day  before, 
(unknown  to  the  general)  concentrated  an  attack  upon  general 
Gates  in  the  night,  in  his  camp  at  Clermont.  At  the  same 
time,  both  armies  began  their  march,  viz.  about  half  past  2 
o'clock  in  the  morning.  Their  advance  parties  met  in  the 
woods  :  a  conflict  ensued — upon  the  first  shock  the  Americans 
tell  into  some  disorder  ;  this  was  soon  recovered,  and  skirmish- 
ing continued  through  the  night ;  when  the  morning1  appear- 
ed, both  parties  being  informed  of  their  situation  by  their  cap- 
tives, anxiously' waited  the  issue. 

An  action  soon  commenced  ;  the  field  was  contested  with 
various  success  ;  the  bayonets  of  the  British  carried  the  day  ; 
the  regular  troops  were  firm,  but  the  militia  fled,  and  dispersed 
as  they  fled — never  to  be  recovered.  The  general  and  his 
regulars  weie  abandoned  to  their  fate. 

Several  parties  of  militia,  who  were  advancing  to  join  the 


GENERAL    OPERATIONS. 

army,  turned  their  arms  against  the  fugitives,  and  thus  com- 
pleted the  overthrow.  The  pursuit  continued  for  more  than 
twenty  miles,  and  the  road  was  strewed  with  the  fragments 
of  this  routed  army,  the  wounded,  the  dead,  and  the  dying. 
Such  was  the  general  panic  through  the- neighboring  country, 
that  a  party  of  horse,  supported  by  more  than  one  hundred  in- 
fantry, and  at  the  distance  of  more  than  eighty  miles  from  the 
scene  of  action,  upon  the  first  intelligence,  sought  safety  bv 
flight. 

The  losses  of  his  lordship,  his  want  of  supplies,  and  the 
sickly  season,  all  constrained  him  to  give  over  his  pursuit, 
"and  remain  at  Camden,  and  pursue  his  plan  of  forcing  and  or- 
ganizing the  submission  of  the  state  of  North  Carolina  ;  the 
more  effectually  to  accomplish  this,  he  seized  all  such  principal 
characters  as  were  firm  to  their  country,  and  sent  them  prison- 
ers to  Charleston  and  St.  Augustine,  and  secured  their  effects. 


CHAP.  XL. 

Revolution  continued  to  the  capture  of  Lord  Cornwallis  at 
York  Town,  October,  1781. 

THE  cavalry  under  Col.  Tarlton  continued  to  ravage  the 
country,  burning,  plundering,  and  destroying  all  in  their  way, 
sparing  neither  whig* nor  tory.  Operations  continued  by  de- 
tached parties,  *and  with  some  success  to  the  Americans. — 
Lord  Cornwallis  made  a  retrograde  movement  to  strengthen  his 
position,  and  general  Gates  put  forth  all  his  efforts  to  collect  an 
army  to  oppose  him  ;  but  his  efforts  ware  not  very  successful ; 
he  moved  from  Hillsborough,  and  took  up  his  head  quarters  at 
Charlotte.  At  this  time  general  Greene  arrived,  disclosing  his 
commission  from  his  excellency  general  Washington,  and  took 
the  command  ;  general  Gates  retired,  and  the  distresses  of 
North  Carolina  continued. 

During  these  operations  at  the  southward,  great  and  perplex- 
ing difficulties  had  nearly  ruined  the  army  under  general  Wash- 
ington. The  frequent  changes  in  the  army,  owing  to  short  en- 
listments, the  want  of  discipline  amongst  the  raw  troops,  the 
want  of  pay,  clothing,  provisions,  &c.  had  repeatedly  dis- 
tressed the  army,  and  were  at  last  accompanied  with  the  revolt 
of  the  whole  Pennsylvania  line. 


260  DEFEAT    OF    COL.    TARLTON. 

In  defiance  to  all  the  efforts  of  general  Wayne,  and  all  the 
other  officers,  they  seized  on  six  pieces  of  artillery,  took  up 
their  march,  and  repaired  to  Princeton.  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
upon  the  first  intelligence,  made  some  important  movements 
from  Staten  Island,  and  sent  spies  at  the  same  time  to  counte- 
nance and  encourage  the  revolt  in  his  name,  with  very  favora- 
ble proposals.  This  was  not  their  object :  they  were  patriotic, 
but  determined  to  be  heard. 

A  committee  from  Congress  waited  upon  the  mutineers,  at 
Princeton,  and  by  liberal  assurances,  endeavored  to  purchase 
their  return  to  duty ;  general  Washington  sent  a  strong  detach- 
ment to  enforce  obedience  ;  and  they  returned  to  their  duty.* 
A  general  arrangement  was  made  by  Congress,  to  supply  the 
armies,  both  by  foreign  and  domestic  aid  and  resources. 

The  war  raged  in  the  south  with  various  success  ;  general 
Greene  took  the  command  of  only  2,307  men,  without  clothes, 
or  magazines,  and  without  discipline  ;  subsisting  on  daily  col- 
lections, in  the  heart  of  a  disaffected  country,  and  in  the  face 
of  a  victorious  enemy. 

Lord  Cornwallis,  on  the  receipt  of  a  reinforcement  of  1,500 
men,  commenced  his  operations,  and  advanced. — Col.  Tarl- 
ton  was  detached,  to  dislodge  general  Morgan  from  his  position 
at  the  Cowpens  :  he  commenced  his  movements  with  his 
usual  impetuosity,  and  traversed  the  country  for  several  days, 
laying  waste  every  thing  in  his  course,  until  he  arrived  at  Mor- 
gan's position  :  an  action  commenced  with  the  same  impetu- 
osity, and  with  signal  success — the  Americans  were  dislodged, 
and  thrown  into  disorder  ;  but  they  rallied  to  the  charge,  and 
were  victorious  in  their  turn  :  Tarlton  was  defeated,  his  army 
routed  and  destroyed,  his  artillery  and  baggage  captured  ;  and 
he,  with  the  mounted  jbgitives,  fled  to  Lord  Cornwallis,  Jan- 
uary 17, 178 1. 

This  defeat  roused  up  his  lordship  :  he  commenced  a  pur- 
suit, and  the  operations  were  such,  as  the  flight  of  the  Ameri- 
cans, and  the  rapid  pursuit  of  his  lordship,  through  a  country 
thinly  settled,  (without  intermission,)  would  necessarily  pro- 
duce. 

Gen.  Greene  had  the  address  to  harrass  his  lordship  in  his 
flight,  and  yet  avoid  a  general  action,  until  he  halted  at  Guil- 
ford,  near  the  confines  of  Virginia,  and  gave  him  battle.  The 
movements  were  well  concerted  ;  and  general  Greene,  with 
his  2000  men,  had  hopes  of  success,  against  his  lordship's  pur- 
suing army,  greatly  superior. 


BATTLE    OP    CAMDEN*.  261 

ie  conflict  was  sharp  :  the  militia  gave  way — the  regu- 
irs  were  overpowered,  and  general  Greene  drew  off  his  ar- 
my in  good  order,  took  a  strong  position  to  collect  the  strag- 
glers, and  commenced  his  retreat.  The  severity  of  the  ac- 
tion occasioned  his  lordship  to  make  a  hasty  retrograde  move- 
ment, to  recover  his  losses. 

During  these  movements,  the  murderous  sword  of  civil 
war,  raged  between  whig  and  tory,  and  threatened  to  depo- 
pulate the  country.  At  this  time  general  Clinton  detached  a 
fleet  with  1,500  troops,  which  entered  the  Chesapeake,  land- 
ed their  forces,  and  began  the  most  alarming  depredations  in 
Virginia  :  several  efforts  were  made  to  dislodge  them,  but 
without  effect.  General  Greene  made  a  movement  to  return  to 
North  Carolina,  and  carry  the  war  into  what  had  now  become 
the  enemy's  country. 

He  boldly  advanced  to  Camden  with  his  little  army,  and 
gave  battle  to  Lord  Rawdon,  April,  1781  :  a  desperate  con- 
flict ensued— victory  for  a  long  time  held  a  doubtful  balance  : 
both  parties  withdrew,  and  left  the  field  covered  with  the  dead. 

On  the  28th  of  April,  general  Greene  thus  expressed  him- 
self to  the  French  minister  :  "  This  distressed  country,  I  am 
sure,  cannot  struggle  much  longer,  \rithout  more  effectual  sup- 
port ;  they  must  fall — and  I  fear  their  fall  will  sap  the  inde- 
pendence of  America.  We  fight,  get  beaten,  rise,  and  fynt 
again — the  whole  country  is  one  continued  scene  of  blood  a  id 
slaughter." 

After  the  battle  of  Camden,  his  lordship  retired  in  his  turn  ; 
general  Greene  advanced,  carried  the  war  into  South  Caioli- 
na,  and  by  a  desperate  attack,  was  on  the  point  of  carrying 
by  assault,  the  strong  fortress  of  Ninety-six,  the  reduction  of 
which  would  have  recovered  all  South  Carolina,  except  Charles- 
ton. 

At  this  critical  moment,  appeared  a  reinforcement  of  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  foot,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  horse, 
which  had  arrived  at  Charleston,  landed,  and  flew  to  the  relief 
of  the  fortress.  General  Greene  retired,  and  again  invested 
his  lordship  in  Camden  ;  not  being  sufficiently  strong  to  attack 
him,  he  made  a  movement  towards  Charleston  ;  this  induced 
his  lordship  to  leave  his  position,  and  with  a  detachment  retire 
to  Charleston,  August,  1781. 

The  war  now  raged  in  Virginia,  under  the  command  of 
general  Phillips.  The  marquis  La  Fayette,  with  a  small 
force,  attempted  to  cover  Richmond — but  failed  ;  and  the 


262  COUNCIL    OP    WAR. 

British  entered  the  capital.  Lord  Cornwallis,  after  the  action 
at  Guiltbrd,  left  general  Greene  to  pursue  his  southern  expe- 
dition, and  moved  to  Wilmington  ;  from  thence  he  commenced 
a  rapid  march  to  Richmond  in  Virginia,  to  join  general  Phil- 
lips, and  at  a  blow,  reduce  the  state  to  obedience  Phillips 
had  died  ;  but  a  reinforcement  of  1,800  regulars  joined  his 
lordship  at  Richmond. 

The  command  devolved  on  his  lordship  ;  and  the  young 
marquis  La  Fayette,  with  a  little  army  of  3,000  men,  was 
now  destined  to  enter  the  lists  with  this  victorious  hero  of  the 
south. 

Flushed  with  his  triumphs,  his  lordship  in  his  communica- 
tion to  sir  Henry  Clinton,  thus  expresses  himself :  "  the  boy 
cannot  escape  me.'7  His  lordship  attempted  to  surprise  the 
rnarquis  and  bring  him  to  an  action — but  without  effect  :  ho, 
with  great  adroitness,  eluded  his  wiles,  and  held  him  at  bay, 
until  he  was  reinforced  by  a  detachment  from  the  north,  un- 
der general  Wayne,  and  the  baron  Sleuben  ;  his  lordship 
took  up  his  quarters  at  Williamsburg,  after  having  spread  car- 
nage, terror  and  desolation  through  the  states  of  South  Caro- 
lina and  North  Carolina,  (for  one  thousand  miles,)  and  plant- 
ed his  victorious  standard  in  the  heart  of  Virginia. 

At  the  commencement  of  these  operations  in  the  south,  a 
French  fleet  under  the  command  of  the  chevalier  de  Turney, 
with  6,000  men,  under  the  command  of  count  Rochambeau, 
arrived  at  Newport,  Rhode-Itland,  July  10,  1780.  The  town 
was  illuminated,  and  the  illustrious  allies  were  received  with 
every  expression  of  respect,  and  grateful  applause.  This  was 
the  fleet  promised  by  the  marquis  La  Fayette,  when  he  return- 
ed from  France,  and  which  he  had  been  the  great  instrument  of 
procuring. 

In  the  month  of  September,  a  conference  was  proposed  by 
general  Washington,  to  the  French  commander  at  (Newport, 
an-i  they  met  at  Hartford,  in  Connecticut.  General  Washing- 
ton was  accompanied  with  the  young  marquis  La  Fayette,  and 
general  Knox.  The  avowed  object  of  conference  was,  to 
concert  measures  for  an  attack  upon  the  city  of  New- York. 

In  the  rnidst  of  this  conference,  an  express  arrived  from 
the  fortress  at  West-Point,  on  the  Hudson,  annoum  Dg  iiie 
traitorous  designs  of  general  Arnold,  ilie  council  >  ;b.  clos- 
ed - -•'•• ;;-;  parties  retired  to  their  posts,  ami  ,;ene;.il  VV  ^h'tig- 
ton  flew  to  the  relief  of  West-Point.  On  his  arrival,  he  iuund 


MAJOR    AJCDRE.  263 

the  cannon  dismounted,  and  the  fortress  dismantled  ;  Arnold 
had  fled,  and  taken  refuge  on  board  a  British  sloop  of  war, 
posted  for  the  occasion. 

Whilst  his  excellency  was  employed  in  repairing  the  fortress, 
a  prisoner  was  announced,  who  proved  to  be  the  unfortunate 
major  Andre,  who  had  volunteered  his  services  to  sir  Henry 
Clinton,  to  negociate  this  treacherous  operation  with  general 
Arnold.  His  character  was  that  of  a  spy,  his  fate  was  death  ! 
The  righteous  sacrifice  greatly  interested  the  feelings,  and  touch- 
ed the  sympathy  of  every  American  breast. 

In  May,  1781,  Gen.  Washington,  with  his  suite,  again  met  the 
French  officers  at  W^ethersfield,  (Conn.)  to  mature  the  plans  of 
the  last  year.  His  excellency,  at  the  close  of  the  consultation, 
repaired  to  head-quarters,  and  commenced  his  system  of  opera- 
tions, to  reduce  the  city  of  New- York.  An  attack  was  contem- 
plated by  land,  whilst  the  French  fleet  should  blockade  the  city 
by  sea.  To  this  end,  the  French  troops  were  landed  at  New- 
port, and  proceeded  to  New- York  :  heavy  cannon  and  mortars, 
left  at  the  siege  of  Boston,  in  1 776,  were  transported  at  great 
expense,  across  the  country  to  the  Hudson  river,  and  down  to 
the  army  before  New- York. 

The  public  feeling  was  alive  to  the  enterprise — the  British 
collected  their  fleet,  fortified  the  port  and  city  of  New- York, 
and  put  themselves  in  the  best  possible  state  of  defence  :  the 
American  army  was  strengthened  by  drafts  of  militia;  and  upon 
the  arrival  of  the  French  troops  to  join  general  Washington,  the 
French  fleet  at  Newport,  (having  been  reinforced  from  France,) 
put  to  sea. 

In  New- York,  all  was  anxiety  and  alarm,  and  a  momentary 
attack  was  expected.  At  this  critical  moment,  general  Wash- 
ington, with  the  best  troops  of  the  army,  in  conjunction  with  the 
French  troops,  made  a  rapid  movement  into  New-Jersey,  and 
to  Philadelphia  :  the  first  regular  intelligence  of  his  movement, 
announced  the  allied  army  at  the  head  of  the  river  Elk,  and  the 
next,  announced  his  arrival  befoie  York  Town  in  Virginia, 
where  lord  Cornwallis  had  retired  upon  a  junction  of  general 
Washington,  whi  the  .Marquis  La  Fayette. 

At  this  critical  juncture,  the  English  fleet,  stationed  to  protect 
his  loi.i.v  p,  had  slipped  their  cables  upon  the  approach  of  the 
French  fleet,  met  them  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake,  been 
beaten  in  a  severe  action,  and  fled  to  New-York.  The  victori- 
ous French  s.:>led  up  the  bay  to  co-operate  with  the  allies,  in 
the  reduction  of  York-Town. 


264  CAPTURE  OF  LORD  CORNWALLIS. 

The  town  was  invested,  and  the  trenches  were  opened  on 
thr  6th  of  October:  the  approaches  were  regular,  the  Cannon- 
ade terrible,  and  the  resistance  desperate.  The  overwhelming 
destruction  which  bore  down,  wasted  and  destroyed  the  British, 
forced  his  lordship  to  request  a  parley  on  the  18th,  and  on  the 
19th,  the  articles  of  capitulation  were  signed,  and  his  lordship, 
with  his  whole  army,  marched  out,  prisoners  of  war,  October 
20th,  1781.  Thus  fell  this  hero  of  the  south,  by  a  stratagem 
concerted  at  Hartford  and  Wethersfield,  (Connecticut.) 


CHAP.  XLI. 

General  affairs  of  America,  to  the  adoption  and  organization 
of  the  Federal  Constitution,  March,  1789 — remarks. 

His  Excellency  General  Washington  closed  the  glorious 
scene  at  York  Town,  by  publishing  in  general  orders,  the 
grateful  effusions  of  his  heart  to  the  army,  both  officers  and  sol- 
diers, and  ordered  the  whole  to  be  assembled  in  brigades  and 
divisions,  to  attend  divine  service,  and  render  thanks  to  that 
God  who  had  given  them  the  victory. 

Congress  next  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  g^n^ral  Washing- 
ton, count  Rochambeau,  count  Degiasse,  the  officers  of  the  di£ 
ferent  corps,  and  the  men  under  their  command  :  appointed  a 
day  of  general  thanksgiving  to  Almighty  God,  th-v  gHout  Uni- 
te.] America  ;  and  moved  in  procession  to  the  Duu  h  Lutheran 
church,  and  returned  thanks  to  God,  for  this  distinguished  suc- 
cess. 

All  United  America  resounded  with  grateful  acclamations  of 
joy,  and  every  breast  glowed  with  the  warmest  emotions  of  gra- 
titude to  the  God  of  their  fathers. 

Congress  ordered  a  marble  column  to  be  erected  in  York- 
Town,  adorned  with  emblems  commemorative  of  the  French 
and  American  alliance,  and  an  inscription,  expressing  the  sur- 
render of  the  British  arms. 

The  several  corps  returned  to  their  former  stations,  and  his 
excellency  general  Washington  repaired   to   Philadelph 
give  repose  to  his  rnind,  and  to  confer  with  congress  upon  the 
future  exigencies  of  the  nation. 

The  French  fleet,  under  count  Degrasse,  sailed  for  the 
West-Indies  on  the  5th  of  November,  and  the  operations  of 


NAVAL    ACTION.  ZOO 

tire  seasons  were  generally  closed.  Virginia,  North-Carolina, 
a«d  all  South-Carolina,  excepting  Charleston,  were  recover- 
ed, and  general  order  restored. 

The  theatre  of  war  was  now  removed  to  the  West-Indies, 
where  France  and  Spain  assembled  a  fleet  of  sixty  ships  of 
the  line,  and  spread  a  general  alarm  throughout  the  British 
islands.  This  was  opposed  by  a  British  fleet  of  equal  force. 
One  of  the  most  desperate  and  sanguinary  conflicts  ensued 
then  ever  known,  between  the  French  under  count  Degrasse, 
and  the  English  under  sir  George  Rodney.  Sir  George  un- 
der a  press  of  sail,  bore  down  upon  the  French  lines ;  the 
French  nailed  their  colors  to  their  masts,  and  fought  xvitlt 
desperation.  Admiral  Degrasse  fought  his  ship,  until  only 
two  men  with  himself  remained,  and  then  struck  his  colors. 
The  English  were  victorious.  The  French  suffered  the  loss 
of  three  thousand  killed,  and  twice  as  many  wounded — the 
English  suffered  severely.  This  action  was  decisive  in  those 
se'as,  and  the  remains  of  the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  with- 
drew. 

Congress  pursued  the  plan  of  loans  from  France,  Spain  and 
Holland  to  prosecute  the  war  :  and  through  their  ministers, 
liberal  supplies  were  obtained.  All  further  operations  in 
South  Carolina  ceased,  and  Charleston  was  evacuated  on 
thef!4th  of  December,  1782,  with  the  most  perfect  order,  and 
in  two  days  the  regular  police  of  the  city,  and  the  govern- 
ment* of  the  state  were  restored.  The  French  troops,  ren- 
dered so  illustrious  at  the  siege  of  York  Town,  now  took  up 
their  march  for  Boston  ,  where  they  embarked  for  France. 

We  pass  over  the  efforts  of  Spain  to  recovej  Gibraltar,  af- 
ter the  conquest  of  Minorca,  together  with  all  further  naval 
operations. 

The  subject  of  peace  now  became  general  in  Europe  and 
America.  Negociations  were  opened  at  Paris  urs'der  Dr. 
Franklin  and  John  Jay,  as  ministers  of  America  ;  and  the 
count  de  Aranda,  minister  of  Spain  ;  and  the  count  de  Vtr- 
gennes  on  the  part  of  France  ;  with  Mr.  Fitzlierbert  and  Mr. 
Oswald,  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain.  Mr,  Adams  v  ;is  a. 
this  time  negotiating  a  commercial  treaty  with  Holland. 

Many  points  labored  ;  the  negotiation  spun  out  :  the  Eng- 
lish ministers  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to  take  the  starting 
point,  and  acknowledge  trie  independence  of  America,  until 
they  had  sent  to  England,  and  received  positive  instructions. 

The  fisheries  next  labored  with  England,  and  France  did 

23 


266  1»EACE    OF   PARIS,    17&S. 

not  favor  all  the  American  demands  upon  this  point.  Dur- 
ing this  struggle  in  this  council,  Mr.  Adams  left  Holland,  at 
the  request  of  Mr.  Jay,  and  repaired  to  Paris ;  and  upon  a 
confutation,  they  agreed  to  negotiate  with  the  British  minis- 
ter separately,  if  the  count  de  Yergennes  did  not  yield  to  the 
American  claims  on  the  fisheries,  &c  This  movement  suc- 
ceeded and  brought  the  negotiations  to  a  favorable  close. 

At  this  critical  juncture,  a  new  scene  opened  to  the  gener- 
al in  chief.  The  army  before  New-York  became  infected 
with  a  general  mutiny,  founded  upon  a  demand  for  arreara- 
ges of  pay,  and  adequate  indemnification  for  their  services 
and  sufferings,  with  sufficient  guarantee,  before  they  were 
disbanded.  The  general,  alarmed  at  this  dangerous  conspi- 
racy, requested  the  general  and  field  officers,  with  one  officer 
from  each  company,  and  a  proper  representation  from  the 
staff  of  the  army,  to  assemble  on  Saturday  the  15th.  He  at 
the  same  time  u^ed  all  his  influence  to  soften  the  violence  of 
their  passions. 

According  to  appointment  the  officers  met,  general  Gates 
vras  appointed  president  :  his  excellency  general  Washington 
addressed  the  council  in  a  short,  but  a  most  pathetic  and  dig- 
nified  speech,  which  touched  their  honors,  their  interest,  and 
their  hearts.  They  voted  an  address  of  thanks  to  his  excel- 
lency, and  retired,  relying  with  full  confidence  on  the  assur- 
ances of  his  excellency,  aod  the  wisdom  and  liberality  of  con- 
gress :  the  mutiny  was  quelled. 

On  the  24th  of  March,  it  was  announced  in  congress,  by  a 
letter  from  the  marquis  la  Fayette,  bearing  date  Feb.  5,  that 
a  general  peace  had  been  signed  at  Paris. 

Congress  settled  the  requirements  of  the  army  to  their  sat- 
isfaction, and  they  were  disbanded.  On  the  4th  of  April  the 
treaty  arrived  in  America  ;  general  rejoicings  resounded 
through  the  country.  On  the  25th  of  November,  the  British 
evacuated  the  city  of  New-York,  and  the  Americans  took  pos* 
session  with  great  dignity  and  good  order.  His  excellen- 
cy general  Washington  with  his  principal  officers,  the  gover 
nor  of  New-York,  &c.  advanced  in  procession,  attended  by 
a  vast  concourse  of  people.  The  ceremony  was  conducted 
with  great  solemnity,  and  did  honor  to  the  occasion. 

When  the  festivity  and  hilarity  of  this  interesting  scene 
were  closed,  his  excellency  general  Washington  took  an  af- 
ectionate  leave  of  the  officers,  who  were  his  companions  in 


&ESIGNATIGN   OF   GEN.    WASHINGTON,.  Z§7 

arms,  retired  to  Philadelphia,  and  exhibited  his  accounts  to 
the  controller,  in  his  own  hand  writing.  He  then  retired  to 
Annapolis,  where  Congress  were  then  sitting  (by  adjourn- 
ment,) and  on  the  20th  of  December,  1783,  resigned  his  com- 
mission as  commander  in  chief.  Congress  being  assembled, 
and  the  house  and  galleries  crowded  by  a  numerous  and 
splendid  collection  of  ladies  and  gentlemen  ;  his  excellency, 
agreeable  to  appointment,  and  by  notice  from  the  president, 
arose  irom  his  seat,  and  with  the  dignity  of  himself,  addressed 
the  house  in  an  appropriate  speech. 

Thus  closed  the  greatest  revolution  that  had  ever  been  un- 
dertaken, accompanied  with  the  greatest  displays  of  wisdom, 
patience,  fortitude,  disinterested  patriotism  and  feats  of  arms, 
ever  before  recorded,  and  with  a  general  success,  uncontempla- 
ted by  the  most  sanguine  sons  of  liberty. 

The  liberty  of  America  was  now  sealed,  by  the  resignation 
of  that  illustrious  chief,  who  had  been  the  instrument  in  the 
hand  of  God,  of  obtaining  and  securing  all  her  blessings,  and 
on  whose  sword  hung  the  destinies  of  America.  The  father 
of  his  country  retired  to  his  seat  in  Virginia,  there  to  enjoy  in 
the  bosom  of  repose,  the  prayers  and  benedictions  of  a  free  and 
grateful  people; 

The  general  interest  of  the  nation  claimed,  and  received 
the  unremitted  efforts  of  congress,  to  give  credit  to  the  paper 
medium,  (now  almost  a  cypher  by  depreciation) — to  satisfy 
the  claims  of  the  army,  and  the  creditors  generally — to 
strengthen  the  union,  by  securing  credit  at  home,  and  confi- 
dence abroad. 

The  individual  states  pursued  the  same  plans,  extended 
their  commerce,  and  improved  their  agriculture,  and  a  general 
tranquillity  prevailed,  Several  of  the  states,  by  legislative  act?, 
infringed  such  articles  of  the  treaty  as  regarded  the  [  ayment 
of  British  debts,  which  gave  to  Great- Britain  a  pretext  for  in- 
fringing that  part  of  the  treaty,  which  related  to  her  relinquish- 
ing the  military  posts  on  the  western  frontier :  these  became 
subjects  of  collision. 

It  was  early  foreseen  after  the  war,  that  the  national  com- 
pact was  too  feeble  to  secure  the  tranquillity  of  the  states; 
two  events  rendered  this  evident  to  all.  It  became  the  inter- 
est of  the  nation,  that  congress  should  lay  a  national  impost, 
to  increase  the  revenue  for  the  general  good.  This  was  ac- 
ceded to  by  all  the  states,  except  Rhode-Island  ;  her  nega- 
tive put  a  veto  upon  tho  measure j  the  impost  failed: — con- 


268  FEDERAL    CONSTITUTION. 

gress  could  only  recommend,  but  had  no  powers  to  enforce, 
About  the  same  time,  an  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  state 
of  Massachusetts,  under  captain  Daniel  Shays,  which  became 
highly  alarming,  and  threatened  the  destruction  of  liberty  and 
the  laws. 

These  two  important  events  called  up  the  attention  of  the 
states  to  their  general  interest  :  they  unanimously  resolved,  in 
their  general  assemblies,  by  the  recommendation  of  congress,  to 
call  a  convention,  to  be  held  at  Philadelphia,  to  frame  a  consti- 
tution, which  should  more  effectually  secure  the  peace  and  pros- 
perity of  the  nation. 

The  delegates  were  chosen  by  all  the  states,  and  assembled 
at  Philadelphia,  May,  1?87.  The  father  of  his  country,  as 
delegate  from  Virginia,  was  unanimously  elected  president  of 
the  convention.  A  constitution  was  framed — received  the  sig- 
natures of  the  convention,  and  was  transmitted  to  the  states  for 
their  approbation  and  acceptance. 

Conventions  of  the  several  states  were  assembled  ;  the  con- 
stitution was  regularly  discussed,  and  adopted  by  a  majority. 
liis  excellency  George  Washington  was  elected  president,  by 
the  unanimous  suffrages  of  his  country,  and  the  honorable  John 
Adams,  vice-president.  Members  ot  a  new  congress  were  reg- 
ularly chosen  by  all  the  states — assembled  at  New-York,  regu- 
larly organized,  March  4,  and  his  excellency  president  Wash- 
ington, with  great  solemnity,  was  inducted  into  office,  April  30, 
1789. 

The  government  was  organized,  and  became  responsible  for 
tlj^e  interests  of  the  nation.  He  who  had  shone  so  conspicuous 
in  the  field,  added  a  new  lustre  to  his  name,  by  his  wisdom  in 
she  cabini  t. 

With  the  new  government,  sprang  up  new  energies  through. 
out  the  nation  ;  union,  peace,  concord,  public  confidence,  pub- 
lic and  pri\  ate  credit  ;  a  spirit  of  agriculture,  ctmmfrce  and 
enterprise,  universally  prevailed;  a  foundation  was  luid  lor  all 
Unit  unrivalled  prosperity  America  has  enjoyed,  and  all  that 
greatness  she  is  destined  to  enjoy. 

Here  let  us  pause,  and  admire  the  wisdom  and  goodness 
of  the  (Joe!  of  our  fathers,  in  his  watchful,  guardian  care,  over 
this  vine  of  the  reformation,  this  little  church  in  the  wilder- 
ness. If  they  had  not  been  harrassed  by  the  savages  in  their 
earl}-  settlements,  would  they  have  preserved  their  virtue  ? 
If  they  ha;1  not  be  n  j  res:  ed  by  the  alarming  iluijters  ot  the 
olu  French  war ;  would  they  ha\<  ever  united?  It  they  had 
not  been  oppressed  by  tritajn  •  would  they  have  become  a 


T/n  ittix 
/tt'\',(t.v  /'l 
t/»tK  /'f-f/ 

tin-  Mitif 


<  ,'if  '>/'  f'uf/ct/  .  ftt'  t'i'tffi    '/"  iY'  ////"  //'/  :*•/ 


PRESIDENT  WASHINGTON;*  ~olj 

nation  ?  If  they  had  not  been  alarmed  by  insurrections  unc'er 
the  old  confederation  ;  would  they  have  delegated  such  pow- 
ers to  the  new  federal  compact  ?  If  the  new  federal  corn- 
pact  had  not  been  framed  and  put  into  operation  just  at  that 
critical  time,  just  upon  the  explosion  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion ;  who  will  dare  to  say,  what  would  ha,\e  been  the  fate  of 
United  America  at  this  day  ?  Let  us  adore  the  God  of  our 
fathers,  who  has  done  all  this  for  us. 


CHAP.  XLtf. 

Affairs  of  America  continued — war  rcith  France — peace — war 
with  England — peace—  war  with  the  Barbary  powers — gen-     * 
eral  peace,  181 5— general  remarks. 

WE  have  noticed  that  auspicious  day,  the  4th  of  March, 
1789,  when  the  father  of  his  country,  as  President  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  of  America,  gave  the  first  energies  to  that  federal 
compact,  which  has  proved  the  palladium  of  the  liberty  and 
prosperity  of  the  nation. 

On  the  5th  of  May  following,  commenced  that  terrible  ex- 
plosion, the  French  revolution,  \yhich  overthrew  the  religion 
and  government  of  France,  subverted  almost  every  throne  in 
Christendom,  and  threatened  the  peace  and  liberty  of  Ameri- 
ca. To  this  compact,  under  God,  America  is  indebted,  for  all 
that  peace  and  prosperity  she  has  been  able  to  maintain 
through  this  mighty  struggle ;  for  her  successes  in  the  war  with  ^ 
France,  1799>  and  her  late  war  with  England,  during  this  dis- 
tressing period. 

The  war  with  France  was  short,  and  of  too  little  moment  to 
claim  particular  attention.  The  late  war  with  England  com- 
menced in  1812,  and  closed  February,  1815,  was  serious  in  its 
operations — eventful  in  its  consequences,  and  claims  some  par- 
ticular notice. 

The  collisions  of  France  and  England  with  the  commercial 
interests  of  America,  excited  a  warmth  of  feeling  in  America, 
and  a  spirit  of  hostility  against  both  nations ;  this  was  express- 
ed by  congress,  according  to  the  strength  and  predominancy  of 
the  two  great  parties  in  our  national  councils  ;  remonstrances 
produced  negociations,  the  fluctuating  state  of  Europe,  rendered 
negociations  critical  and  doubtful, 
23* 


*?.rO  WAR   WITH    ENGLAND, 

When  the  emperor  Napoleon  commenced  his  career  of  c,.ir- 
quest — when  all  Europe  were  alive  to  the  events  of  the  day — 
the  American  government  embraced  the  favorable  moment  to 
redress  the  wrongs  she  had  so  long  and  so  patiently  endured 
from  British  depredation  on  her  commerce,  and  the  rights  of  the 
American  flag. — They  proclaimed  war  against  England,  and 
at  a  blow,  attempted  the  conquest  of  "the  Canadas  ;  it  failed, 
and  the  war  became  a  naval  war. 

Great-Britain  prepared  to  secure  her  possessions  in  the 
Canadas,  by  powerful  armaments  on  the  lakes;  America  con- 
tinued her  operations  against  the  Canadas,  and  prepared  to 
meet  her  on  the  water ;  she  at  the  same  time  commenced 
general  depredations  upon  the  commerce  of  England,  with 
privateers  and  frigates,  and  the  contest  became  sharp  ami 
cloudy. 

The  English  government  sent  their  ships  of  war  and  frigates 
on  to  the  American  coast,  with  full  confidence  that  the  small 
naval  force  of  America  would  soon  be  overpowered  and  de- 
stroyed. The  Americans  sent  their  cruisers  and  frigates  into 
evt  ry  sea,  and  every  clime,  with  high  confidence  and  distinguish- 
ed success.  The  particular  operations  of  this  war,  upoa  the 
water,  claim  some  noike. 

On  ilie  2 1st  of  June,  1812,  (three  days  after  war  was  de- 
clared,) an  American  squadron  of  two  frigates  and  two  sloops 
of  war,  under  commodore  Rogers,  sailed  from  IS  e^- York  on 
a  crui.v.o.  On  the  13th  August,  the  United  States  frigate  Es- 
sex of  44  guns,  commanded  by  captain  Porter,  fell  in  with 
and  captured  his  Britannic  Majesty's  sloop  of  war  Alert,  of 
1Q  guns,  after  an  action  of  eight  minutes.  On  the  IQth  of 
August  the.  United  States  fripute  Constitution,  of  44  guns, 
captain  Hull,  fell  in  with  and  captured  his  Britannic  Majesty's 
frigate  Guerriere,  of  38  guns,  James  Dacres,  commander,  af- 
ter an  action  of  twenty-five  minutes.  The  Guerriere  lost  fif- 
teen men  killed  and  sixty- four  wounded  j  the  Constitution  had 
seven  killed  and  seven  wounded. 

At  this  time  the  government  of  Algiers  commenced  depre- 
dations upon  the  American  commerce  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  captured  the  brig  Edwin  of  Salem.  October  18th,  the 
United  States  sloop  of  war  Wasp,  of  iGguns,  captain  Jone?, 
fell  in  with  his  Britannic  Majesty's  sloop  of  war  Frolic,  of  18 
guns,  captain  Wyngates,  ami  captured  her  in  forty-three  min- 
utes; the  Frolic  had  thirty  killed  and  fifty  \youndecl  j  the  Wasp 
h;.'d  five  killed,  and  five  \voundcd. 


NAVAL    WARFARE.  J|i 

His  Britannic  majY sty's  ship  of  war  the  Poictiers,  of  seven- 
ty-four guns,  fell  in  with  and  captured  the  Wasp  and  her  prize 
soon  after  the  action.  October  25,  the  United  States  frigate, 
United  States,  of  fort \-four  guns,  commodore  Decalur,  tell 
in  with,  and  captured  his  Britannic  Majesty's  frigate  Macedo- 
nian of  38  guns,  J.  S.  Garden  commander,  after  an  action  of 
one  hour  and  thirty  minutes;  the  Macedonian  lost  thiity-six 
killed,  and  sixty-eight  wounded  ;  the  United  States  five  kil- 
led and  seven  wounded.  December  29th,  the  United  States 
frigate  Constitution,  44  guns,  Commodore  Bainbridge,  fell  in 
with  and  captured  his  Britannic  Majesty's  frigate  Java,  of 
thirty-four  guns,  captain  Lambert,  after  an  action  of  fifty-five 
minutes  ;  the  Java  lost  sixty-nine  killed,  and  one  hundred  and 
0'ne  wounded  j  the  Constitution  nine  killed,  and  twenty-five 
wounded. 

During  these  operations  on  the  water,  the  Americans  were 
unsuccessful  in  all  their  laud  operations  against  Canada,  and 
the  war  on  that  side  wore  an  unfavorable  aspect.  February 
24,  1813,  the  United  States  staop  of  war  Hornet,  of  sixteen 
guns,  captain  Lawrence,  fell  in  with  and  captuied  his  Britan- 
nic Majesty's  brig  Peacock  of  eighteen  guns,  captain  Peake, 
aOer  an  action  of  15  minutes  ;  the  Peacock  had  33  wounded 
which  uere  saved  with  the  prisoners  of  the  crew  ;  but  the  kill- 
ed, with  their  captain  went  down  with  the  Peacock  ;  the  Hor- 
net lost  1  killed,  4  wounded,  and  3  sunk  in  the  prize. 

August.— At  this  time,  the  skirmishing  on  lake  Ontario 
commenced  with  various  success  ;  the  Creek  and  Choctaw 
Indians,  began  their  depredations  with  success;  and  the  Eng- 
lish blockaded  the  ports  south  of  the  Chesapeake  bay,  under 
sir  J.  B.  \Varren.  September  3 — the  U.  S.  brig  Enterprise  of 
1C  guns,  captain  Burrows,  fell  in  with  and  captured  his  Bri- 
tannic majesty's  brig  Boxer,  of  18  guns,  captain  Blythe,  after 
an  action  of  45  minutes  ;  the  loss  of  the  Enterprise  9 — t^e 
Boxer  lost  45  ;  both  captains  fell  in  the  action. 

The  limits  of  this  work  will  not  permit  me  to  pursue  this 
brilliant  scene  of  naval  war,  and  shew,  in  detail,  the  capture 
of  his  Britannic  majesty's  frigates  Cyane  and  Levant,  by  the 
United  States  frigate  Constitution,  in  a  desperate  action  ;  of 
his  Britannic  majesty's  frigate  Penguin  of  thirty-two  guns,  by 
the  United  States  sloop  of  war  Hornet  ;>  of  his  Britannic  ma- 
jesty's brig  Epervier,  of  eighteen  guns,  by  the  United  States 
sloop  of  war  Peacock;  of  his  Britannic  majesty's  sloop  of 
V««r  Keindecr,  by  the  United  States  sloop  of  war  Wasp;  or  of 


272  L-E  KEY'S  VICTORY. 

his  Britannic  majesty's  brigs  Letticeand  Bon  Accord,  and  siocp 
of  war  Avon,  by  the  Wasp  :  the  last  of  which,  sunk  immedi- 
ately after  the  action. 

These  captures  were  the  result  of  close  action,  in  sharp  and 
desperate  conflicts;  many  of  these  prizes,  were  stripped  of  eve- 
ry spar,  and  several  so  cut  to  pieces,  as  to  become  unmanagea- 
ble, and  were  burnt  at  sea;  others  sunk  in  the  action,  or  imme- 
diately after. 

The  general  movements  for  the  reduction  of  Canada,  were 
now  completed  j  the  fleets  on  lake  Erie,  and  lake  Ontario, 
were  now  about  equal  in  numbers  and  force,  and  prepared  for 
action.  The  American  forces  under  the  command  of  Gen. 
Harrison,  moved  towards  Detroit,  and  an  action  commenced 
ou  Lake  Erie,  between  the  American  fleet,  under  the  command 
of  Com.  Perry,  and  the  British  fleet  under  the  command  of 
commodore  Barclay,  Sept.  10th. 

The  fleets  were  equal  :  commodore  Barclay,  an  old  distin- 
guished officer,  in  the  school  of  Nelson,  had  seen  much  ser- 
vice ;  commodore  Perry,  a  young  officer,  and  without  experi- 
ence. The  conflict  commenced — the  action  was  general  and 
desperate — commodore  Perry's  ship  being  disabled  he  changed 
liis  flag,  on  board  another  ship,  in  an  open  boat,  in  the  heat 
of  xthe  action,  and  at  once  bore  down  with  the  remainder  of  his 
fleet  upon  the  enemy  :  both  fleets  were  close  engaged — 
the  action  was  short — the  carnage  was  terrible,  and  the  whole 
British  squadron  surrendered  to  commodore  Perry.  Two 
ships,  two  brigs,  cne  sloop,  and  one  schooner,  were  the  trophies 
of  his  victory. 

The  British,  upon  the  news  of  this  victory,  evacuated  De- 
troit, and  retired  to  Maiden,  in  Upper  Canada.  Gen.  Harri- 
son took  possession  of  Detroit,  Sept.  28th,  and  pursued  into 
Canada.  The  illustrious  Perry  joined  him,  and  became  his 
companion  in  arms.  Gen.  Harrison  gained  a  victory  over  Gen.; 
Proctor,  in  Upper  Canada,  with  distinguished  advantage  ;  and 
captured  and  destroyed  his  whole  army,  Oct.  5.  At  the  same 
time,  com.  Chauncey  took  and  destroyed  seven  of  the  British 
squadron  on  lake  Ontario. 

Nov.  4th — Overtures  for  peace  arrived  from  England  :  at 
the  same  time  Gen.  Wilkinson  arrived,  and  took  command  of 
the  expedition  into  Canada.  The  operalions  continued  with 
various  success,  through  the  month  of  December,  and  both 
armies  took  up  their  winter  quarters. 

Feb.  1314.— The  U.  States  frigate  President, 


QR6JISE    AND    GAPTORE    OP   THE    ESSEX.  elf3 

Rogers',  arrived  after  a  cruise  of  seventy  days.  The  United 
States  frigate  Essex,  of  thirty-two  guns,  captain  Porter,  which 
had  sailed  early  in  the  war,  on  a  cruise  to  South  America, 
took  several  valuable  prizes  on  the  coast  of  Biazil,  doubled 
Cape  Horn,  and  cruised  with  great  success  on  the  coast  of  Chi- 
li and  Peru  ;  captured  and  destroyed  the  British  whale  ships  in 
those  seas,  and  repaired  to  the  bay  of  Valparaiso,  on  the  coast 
of  Chili,  to  obtain  supplies;  here  she  was  overtaken  and 
blockaded  by  a  superior  British  force,  consisting  of  the  frigate 
Phce1  e,  of  thirty-six  guns,  and  'the  sloop  of  war  Ch«  rub,  of 
twenty-two  guns,  and  was  captured,  after  an  action  of  two 
hours  and  a  half. 

At  this  time  Gen.  Jackson  took  vengeance  on  the  Creek  In- 
dians, for  their  predatory  ravages.  July  3 — The  operations 
against  Canada  were  now  commenced.  August. — A  British 
squadron  entered  the  Potomac,  proceeded  up  to  the  city  of 
Washington,  landed  a  body  of  British  troops,  took  :he  city, 
burnt  the  Capitol,  President's  house,  &c.  and  retired,  and 
plundered  Alexandria  ;  from  thence  they  proceeded  to  Balti- 
more, and  after  an  unsuccessful  attack,  were  compelled  to  re- 
tire. 

Sept.  11. — The  town  of  Plattsburg  was  assaulted  by  a  land 
force  from  Lower  Canada,  under  the  command  of  den.  Pre- 
vost,  and  a  formidable  naval  force,  under  the  command  of 
commodore  Downie.  The  harbor  or'  Plattsburgh  was  defend- 
ed by  the  American  squadron,  under  the  command  of  com, 
Macdonough.  The  merits  of  this  action,  so  g'orious  to  the 
American  navy,  may  be  seen  by  the  following  official  report  of 
commodore  Macdonough. 

U.S.  ship  Saratoga,  of  Plattsbnrgh,  Sept.  11,  1814. 

Sir, — The  Almighty  has  been  pleased  to  grant  us  a  .sig.'.al 
victory  on  Lake  Champlain,  in  the  capture  of  one  frigate,  one 
brig,  and  two  sloops  of  war. 

J  have  the  honor  to  be,  very  respectfully, 

Sir  your  most  obedient  servant, 

T.  MACUONOUGH, 

Hon.  WILLIAM  JONES, 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

This  signal  victory,  obliged  General  Prevost  to  retire  with 
U  rapid  movement ;  the  American  troops  pursued,  an. I  here- 
turned  into  Canada.  The  openlions  on  the  lines  continued 
with  various  success.  The  Biiti  li  in\adi-<l  th<-  city  of  New- 
Orleans  with  a  formidable  force,  with  a  view  to  make  a  eeri- 


WAR  WITH  ALGIERS. 

quest  of  Louisiana ;  but  were  repulsed  in  a  signal  victory  by 
general  Jackson,  and  abandoned  the  enterprise,  January  8, 
1815.  On  the  llth  February,  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain  arrived,  and  closed  the  conflict.  All  things  returned 
into  their  former  state,  February  18,  the  treaty  was  ratified 
and  peace  was  established* 

On  the  2d  of  March,  1815,  war  was  declared  by  the  Ame- 
rican government  against  Algiers,  and  a  squadron  of  eleven 
frigates  and  armed  vessels,  was  dispatched  to  the  JVlediteira- 
nean,  in  two  divisions,  under  commodores  Bainbridge  and 
Decatur;  and  in  four  months,  all  the  Barbary  powers  were 
united  in  treaties  of  peace  with  the  united  States;  our  own 
captives,  and  those  of  several  European  states,  released,  and 
expressions  of  submission  from  several  of  those  powers  ob- 
tained, not  hitherto  contemplated,  and  such  as  had  never  been 
extorted  by  any  other  nation.  A  just  tribute  to  the  American 
flag. 

Religion,  patriotism  and  valor,  supported  by  industry  and 
economy,  joined  to  resolution,  perseverance  and  enterprise, 
marked  the  character  of  our  fathers  :  these  virtues  combined, 
made  this  western  wilderness  blossom  like  the  rose,  and  this 
savage  desert  become  vocal  with  the  praises  of  our  God  ;  led 
them  to  resolve,  that  as  the  bible  was  the  standard  of  their  re- 
ligious faith  and  practice,  they  would  take  the  bible  for  the 
standard  of  their  civil  government,  until  they  could  find  a 
better, 

Under  this  standard,  they  planted  a  system  of  religious, 
eivil  and  literary  institutions,  the  most  free,  pure  and  perfect 
ever  before  known  ;  protected  by  a  system  of  military  disci- 
pline, the  most  independent  in  thy  support  of  that  all  impor- 
tant military  principle,  true  merit)  ever  before  witnessed  ;  the 
whole,  supported  by  that  balance  of  power  in  the  three  de- 
partments of  government,  unknoim  to  all  former  republics  ; 
'A  balance  of  power  which  originated  in  the  Saxon  hrptarchy 
in  the  fifth  century — -was  greatly  improved  by  Alfred  the  great, 
in  the  ninth  century — and"  has  been  completed  in  America. 

Upon  this  inestimable  basis,  stands  the  illustrious  republic 
of  •  nited  America.  The  success  of  these  systems,  stands  un- 
rivalled in  the  annals  of  time,  and  so  long  as  they  are  preserv- 
ed in  their  purity,  will  continue  to  stand  unrivalled,  until  they 
are  eclipsed  by  the  glories  of  the  great  millennial  day. 

All  the  literature  of  the  ancients,  together  with  all  the  ex- 
tensive improvements  of  the  moderns;  in  the  arts  and.  sciea- 


REMARKS-  27 

ces  have  flourished  in  America,  and  equalled,  if  not  surpass- 
ed i  he  learning  of  Europe.  The  manufactures  of  America 
are  yet  in  their  infancy  ;  although  her  improvements  have  been 
flattering,  she  can  never  excel,  so  long  as  an  unbounded  forest 
invites  to  distant  enterprise,  and  promises  a  rich  reward  to  the 
hardy  sons  of  labor. 

The  agriculture  of  America  has  kept  pace  with  her  general 
improvements;  her  inventive  genius  shines  conspicuous ;  and 
her  enterprise  on  the  ocean,  has  rendered  her  the  second 
commercial  nation  in  the  world.  Her  naval  glory  stands  un- 
rivalled,  and  tjpe  late  war  with  England  has  evinced  to  the 
world,  that  America  has  stripped  the  laurel  from  the  brow  of 
the  mistress  of  the  seas. 

The  most  distinguished  features  in  the  American  character^ 
are  displayed  in  that  unshaken  virtue  which  formed  her  nation- 
al republican  compact:  a  compact  which  has  so  balanced  the 
independent  sovereignties  of  the  several  states,  as  to  give  the 
most  flattering  assurances  that  states  may  be  multiplied  to  any 
extent,  even  to  oversp.ead  the  whole  northern  continent,  and 
yet  our  free  elective  government  be  supported,  and  the  free  ii> 
dependent  republics  preserved. 

Let  every  American  cherish  the  religion  and  virtues  of  our 
forefathers  ;  cultivate  and  preserve  their  habits,  manners  and 
customs,  together  with  their  wise  and  virtuous  institutions  ;  re- 
membering, that  these  are  the  basis  of  all  our  boasted  acquire- 
ments and  enjoyments  :  that  when  we  abandon  these,  we  aban- 
don the  God  of  our  fathers,  the  vine  which  he  has  planted,  and 
desert  the  standard  of  the  church  in  the  wilderness.  We  may 
then  take  up  our  lamentation,  with  an  eternal  adieu  to  all  our 
greatness,  to  all  our  peace,  to  all  our  boasted  enjoyments.  We 
shall  then  add  one  more  example  to  the  many  already  gone  be- 
fore us,  that  republican  liberty  without  virtue,  is  dead.  We 
shall  the*n  have  a  master,  and  that  master  must  be  a  despot.* 

*  Ssetfo  recapitulation  of  the  family  of  Abraham,  page  17* 


SKETCHES  OF 
UNIVERSAL  HISTORY, 


PART  THIRD. 

CHAP.  I. 

•  •«. 

Causes  that  led  to  the  French  revolution  ;  causes  that  led  to 
the  great  events  which  controlled  it ;  northern  confederation 
a  gainst  Sweden;  the  rise  of  Peter  1. ;  rise  of  Charles  XII. ; 
character  of  Sivcden^  Russia,  Denmark  and  Poland — inva- 
sion of  Denmark,  and  peace — siege  of  Narva  ;  battle  of 
Narva  j  battle  of  the  Dwina  ;  intrigues  of  Charles  XII.  in 
Poland  ;  character  of  the  Polish  nation  and  government ; 
intrigues  of  the  Archbishop  of  Gnesna — distracted  state  of 
Poland. 

THAT  bright  luminary  of  the  west,  the  reformation,  which 
had  in  some  degree  illumined  all  the  states  of  Europe,  amidst 
the  bloody  and  cruel  persecutions  of  the  popes,  and  the  creatures 
of  the  papal  church  :  and  enjoyed  the  protecting  power  of  Hen- 
ry VIII.  of  England,  Henry  the  IVth.  of  France,  and  Queen 
Elizabeth  of  England  ;  and  had  triumphed  over  the  vindictive 
malice  of  Philip  the  It.  of  Spain,  and  the  overbearing  hauteur, 
and  exterminating  persecution  of  Lewis  XIV.  of  France,  and 
had  seen  the  true  church  happily  planted  in  America;  was  now 
destined  to  witness  new  and  sanguinary  scenes,  to  endure 
new  and  sanguinary  sufferings,  and  experience  the  triumphs  of 
her  enemies. — Enemies,  more  fatal  to  the  church  than  the 
whole  catalogue  of  two  hundred  and  sixty  popes,  and  n  oie 
vindictive  against  the  reformation,  than  the  thirty-eight  pa- 
pal despots,  who  have  flourished  since  the  days  of  Luther.— 
Enemies,  who  combined  all  the  violent  subtlety  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  Ignatius  Loyola,  (that  saint  of  Gregory  XV.)  with  all 


INFIDELITY.  277 

the  arch  malice  and  venom  of  the  school  of  modern  philoso- 
phers, and  who  attacked  her  with  the  whole  host  of  infidelity, 
under  the  masked  assault  of  reason,  philosophy,  and  illu- 
minatism  ;  armed  a  great  nation  by  a  desperate  and  destruc- 
tive revolution,  to  rifle  her  temples,  violate  her  altars,  pillage 
and  butcher  tier  friends,  and  by  one  solemn  national  decree, 
announce  "there  is  no  God,  and  death  is  an  eternal  sleep." 

The  regular  and  progressive  order  of  things  in  Europe, 
which  paved  the  way  to  this  eventual  crisis,  together  with  the 
means  which  at  the  same  time  were  regularly  progressing  to 
control  it,  claim  some  particular  notice. 

The  great  conflicts  which  sprang  up  in  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
which  drencn-d  the  south  in  blood,  by  thf  lust  of  dominion, 
pride,  subtlety,  intrigue,  luxury  and  corruption,  paved  the 
way  for  the  gratification  of  that  black  catalogue  of  passions 
which  flow  from  the  total  depravity  of  the  human  heart,  and 
under  the  mask  of  science  and  refinement,  opened  the  thea- 
tre of  a  twenty  years  war,  and  threatened  the  extermination  of 
the  very  name  of  religion. 

The  first  symptom  of  this  sanguinary  scene  appeared, 
when  Lewis  XV.  interfered  in  the  quarrel  of  the  Jensenists, 
and  Jesuits;  the  violence  of  the  parliament  shewed  that  the 
poison  had  begun  to  work,  and  the  attempt  on  the  life  of  the 
king  was  a  specimen  of  the  same  subtle  and  vindictive  malice 
that  destroyed  Henry  IV.  and  rendered  the  abolition  of  the  or- 
der of  Jesuits  absolutely  necessary. 

The  demon  of  subtlety  and  discord  then  assumed  a  new 
form,  and  continued  to  work  with  the  same  means,  under  a  new 
name,  until  it  again  drenched  the  world  in  blood,  and  was  con- 
strained to  languish  under  the  rod  which  its  own  violence  and 
excesses  had  raised  up  to  check  and  control  it.  When  and  how 
God  had  prepared  this  rod  of  correction,  claims  our  next  at- 
tention. 

Jn  detailing  the  great  events  of  Europe  in  succession,  we 
noticed  the  mighty  conflict  in  the  north,  which  sprang  up  ia 
the  reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  of  France,  between  Russia,  Poland 
and  Denmark,  with  Sweden  ;  passed  over  the  operations  and 
events  of  this  war,  and  left  them  for  this  place,  as  being  more 
immediately  connected  with  the  great  subject  of  this  part  of  our 
work. 

24 


278  PETER   I. 

The  long  and  distressing  reigns  of  Lewis  XIV.  and  XV.  had 
kindled  a  fire  of  ambition  in  the  breast  of  man,  which  had  given 
a  polish  to  his  manners,  a  brilliancy  to  the  arts,  and  a  lustre  to 
his  arms,  which  far  surpassed  former  ages,  and  which  the  states 
of  the  north  had  not  acquired. 

That  God,  who  renders  his  means  always  adequate  to  his 
ends,  had  now  raiserj  up  a  bright  constellation  in  the  north, 
which  should  enable  their  dignity  and  improvements  to  vie 
with  the  south.  The  two  champions  of  this  northern  con- 
stellation, were  Peter  I.  of  Russia,  and  Charles  XII.  of  Swe- 
den. 

In  1696,  Peter  had  rendered  his  arms  illustrious,  in  his  war 
with  the  Turks,  particularly  in  the  acquisition  of  Asoph,  and 
the  dominion  of  the  Black  Sea.  Flushed  with  the  acquisitions 
of  this  war,  he  resolved  to  make  Russia  the  centre  of  trade  for 
all  that  northern  world — to  this  end  he  contemplated  a  city 
upon  the  Baltic,  and  a  chain  of  water  communication,  from 
thence  to  the  Black  Sea,  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  to  Archangel  on 
the  North  Sea,  and  to  China. 

To  accomplish  these  great  objects,  he  sent  three  ambassa- 
dors into  the  south  of  Europe,  to  the  courts  of  England, 
France  and  Holland,  and  followed  in  their  train  as  a  private 
gentleman.  He  passed  into  Holland;  there  he  entered  the 
dock  yards,  and  served  as  a  common  laborer  to  learn  the 
art  of  ship  building:  he  passed  over  into  England,  where  he 
was  courteously  received,  and  returned  into  Russia,  carrying 
with  him  some  carpenters  from  the  dock-yards  of  England 
and  Holland,  and  was  master  builder  for  the  first  ship  built  in 
Russia. 

In  his  travels,  he  studied  the  arts  and  sciences  generally ;  he 
studied  men,  manners  and  things,  with  a  view  of  laying  the 
foundation  of  the  future  greatness  of  his  country. 

The  peace  of  Carlowitz  closed  the  war  with  the  Turks, 
and  guaranteed  to  Peter  the  conquests  upon  the  Black  Sea. 
Fired  with  the  successes  of  this  war,  his  mind  aspired  to  the 
dominion  of  the  Baltic,  to  accomplish  the  whole  extent  of 
his  ambitious  plans.  To  this  end,  he  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  Denmark,  then  Frederick  II.  and  with  the 
king  of  Poland,  then  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony,  to  seize 
on  the  dominions  of  Charles  XII.  the  young  king  of  Sweden. 
By  this  blow,  Peter  hoped  to  open  a  way  to  the  ocean, 
through  the  sovereignty  of  the  Baltic,  and  establish  the  un- 
controuled  commerce  of  his  new  capital.  All  this  was  mask- 


GUSTAVtfS   VASA.  279 

ed,  under  the  pretext  of  recovering  the  territory  of  his  ances- 
tors, particularly  the  provinces  of  Ingria  and  Livonia. 

The  dominions  of  Peter,  at  this  time,  embraced  the  whole 
north  eastern  section  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  together 
with  the  whole  northern  section  of  Asia,  extending  from  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  on  the  west,  to  the  ocean  on  the  north, 
and  the  Pacific  ocean  on  the  east ;  the  most  extensive,  and 
the  most  barbarous  empire  on  the  earth,  and  now  under  the 
sovereign  dominion  of  one  of  the  greatest  and  most  ambitious 
monarchs. 

Sweden,  which  was  the  Scandinavia  of  the  ancients,  (or 
Gothland,)  from  whence  issued  the  swarms  of  those  tribes 
which  overwhelmed  the  western  Roman  empire,  had  been 
distinguished  for  its  heroes,  and  the  love  of  liberty,  until 
it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Denmark,  in  the  reign  of  Mar- 
garet, 1492,  and  the  distresses  which  ensued  upon  the  divi- 
sion and  intrigues  of  Christern,  king  of  Denmark,  and  Upsal, 
archbishop  and  primate  of  the  kingdom,  a  creature  of  the 
pope. 

These  oppressions  roused  up  the  nation  to  a  sense  of  their 
wrongs :  wn6n  Gustavus  Vasa,  a  prince  from  the  ancient 
kings  of  Sweden,  who  had  been  driven  into  obscurity  by  the 
revolutions  of  his  suffering  country,  and  in  the  character  of  a 
peasant,  had  been  immured  in  the  mines  of  Sweden  ;  burst 
from  his  long  concealment  ;  disclosed  his'  character  to  his 
countrymen  ;  put  himself  at  their  head  ;  with  his  sword  took 
vengeance  on  his  enemies,  and  restored  the  liberty  of  his 
country.  Gustavus  took  vengeance  on  the  creatures  of  the 
pope;  exterminated  the  papal  religion,  and  established  the 
reformation  of  Luther,  which  continues  to  be  the  religion  of 
Sweden. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  his  son  and  successor,  styled  the  great, 
protected  the  reformation  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  humbled 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  made  the  pope  tremble  upon  his 
throne.  ID  the  midst  of  his  triumphs,  he  crowned  the  battle  of 
Lutzen  with  his  illustrious  death,  and  was  succeeded  by  Chris- 
tiana, who  did  nothing  more  than  to  evince  to  the  world,  that 
she  was  unworthy  of  the  crown  of  Sweden,  appoint  her  succes- 
sor, and  resign  her  crown  to  Charles  Gustavus. 

lie,  like  his  ancestor  Gustaphus  Adolphus,  was  illustrious  in 
arms,  and  died  young,  in  the  midst  of  successful  enterprise, 
and  left  his  crown  to  Charles  XI.  who  also  was  distinguished 
in  arms,  died  early,  and  left  his  crown  to  the  immortal 
Charles  XTT. 


280  CHARLES    XH. 

Charles  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  this  illustrious  line  of 
ancestors,  at  fifteen  years  of  age,  in  the  year  of  1 699,  the  same 
year  that  Peter  the  I.  returned  from  his  travels,  and  formed 
the  design  of  dismembering  his  kingdom.  The  heroes  of 
this  distinguished  dynasty,  had  trained  the  hardy  Swedes  to 
war;  and  their  spirit  of  liberty,  joined  to  the  principles  of  the 
reformation,  had  rendered  their  victorious  arms  illustrious  on 
the  fields  of  Germany,  and  inspired  their  neighbors  with  a  high 
sense  of  their  valor. 

Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  at  this  time,  was  seated  upon  a* 
throne  rendered  splendid  by  the  high  polish  of  his  own  person- 
al elegance,  address  and  manners  ;  his  kingdom  was  under  the 
full  power  of  the  feudal  system.  Augustus  was  but  the  shadow 
of  a  king,  the  nobility  held  the  power. 

Denmark  was  governed  by  Frederic  II.  in  possession  of 
Norway,  and  claiming  the  sovereignty  of  one  half  of  Sweden  ; 
possessing  the  spirit  of  those  ancestors,  whose  depredations  we 
iiave  so  often  witnessed  in  England  and  France,  and  who  was 
now  leagued  with  Peter  and  Augustus,  to  dismember  the  king- 
dom of  Sweden,  during  the  early  age  of  the  young  king,  Charles 
XII.  He  began  the  war  by  invading  the  duchy  of  Holstein, 
then  owned  jointly  by  the  duke  of  Holstein,  and  his  brother-in- 
law  Charles'XIL— 1700. 

Upon  the  first  tidings  of  the  war,  the  senate  of  Sweden 
were  assembled,  and  the  young  king  appeared  in  the  midst  of 
his  council.  During  the  all  important  deliberations,  all  eyes 
were  fixed  on  him  ;  he  was  cool,  thoughtful,  and  silent.  When 
impatience  was  ready  to  distract  the  council,  he  exclaimed, 
"I  will  never  begin  an  unjust  war,  nor  end  a  just  one,  but  with 
the  destruction  of  my  enemies" — immediately  made  the  neces- 
sary arrangements,  embarked  his  troops  at  Carlescroon,  on 
board  his  fleet,  set  sail  for  Copenhagen,  landed  on  the  island  of 
'Zealand,  and  invested  the  city. 

Upon  the  landing  of  the  troops,  Charles  was  the  first  on 
shore ;  and  when  he  heard  the  whistling  of  the  bullets  from 
the  Danes,  who  opposed  his  landing,  he  said  to  an  officer  who 
was  near,  "  what  noise  is  that  in  the  air  ?"  upon  being  answer- 
ed, it  is  the  whistling  of  bullets,  he  replied,  "evermore  let  this 
be  my  music." 

A  deputation  immediately  attended  the  king  from  Copen- 
hagen, beseeching  him  not  to  bombard  their  city — Charles, 
on  horseback  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  received  them  on 
their  knees,  and  upon  a  promise  to  pay  four  thousand  rix  dol- 


PEACE    OF    DENMARK.  281 

lars,  he  granted  their  request,  concluded  a  treaty,  and  in  six 
weeks,  Denmark  was  severed  from  the  confederacy  by  an 
honorable  peace,  and  the  duke  of  Holstein  indemnified  for 
all  his  losses  and  expenses  in  the  war. 

During  these  operations,  Peter  the  Czar,  with  the  allies,  en- 
tered the  provinces  of  Livonia  and  Ingria  ;  Peter  laid  siege  to 
Narva,  with  eighty  thousand  men,  and  Augustus  laid  siege  to 
Riga.  Charles  advanced  to  the  relief  of  Narva, ,  crossed  the 
gulf  of  Riga,  with  fifteen  thousand  foot,  and  four  thousand 
horse,  and  landed  in  Livonia.  The  Czar  had  opened  his 
trenches  in  October,  before  Narva,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  eighty  thousand  men,  with  a  reserve  of 
thirty  thousand,  thea  on  their  march  to  join  him  at  Narva. 

The  character  of  the  Swedes  had  been  formed,  under  the 
succession  of  heroes  who  had  filled  the  Swedish  throne,  but 
the  character  of  the  Russians  was  yet  to  be  formed.  This 
army  of  the  Czar,  was  rather  an  assembled  multitude,  than  a 
regular  army  ;  composed  of  the  peasantry  of  Russia,  in  a  rude, 
savage,  undisciplined  state,  many  of  them  clad  in  the  skins  of 
wild  beasts,  armed  with  war  clubs,  and  bows  and  arrows,  few  of 
them  had  fire  arms,  and  were  commanded  by  their  chiefs,  as 
unaccustomed  to  discipline  as  their  soldiers. 

The  Czar  had  given  the  command  of  this  army  to  a  Ger- 
man general,  the  duke  de  Croix,  on  whose  experience  and 
abilities  he  had  great  confidence;  and  held,  himself,  the  sta- 
tion of  a  lieutenant,  for  the  double  purpose  of  learning  the 
military  art,  as  he  had  learnt  the  ship  carpenter's  art,  through 
the  regular  grades  of  service — and  to  set  the  example  of  sub- 
ordination and  discipline  to  the  chiefs  in  his  service,  who  had 
been  accustomed  to  absolute  sway,  over  their  untutored 
slaves. 

The  Qsar  had  posted  30,000  of  this  besieging  army  in  ad- 
vance from  Narva,  one  league ;  and  20,000  more  in  advance 
of  the  former,  in  order  to  intercept  the  approach  of  Charles, 
to  the  relief  of  Narva  ;  and  5,000  more,  as  an  advance  guard  ; 
and  had  gone  himself  to  hasten  the  march  of  an  army  of  40,000 
men,  then  on  their  way  to  join  his  army  before  Narva. 

Charles  resolved  to  attack  the  Czar  in  his  camp,  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  4,000  horse,  and  4,000  light  troops,  and  made 
a  rapid  movement  to  the  relief  of  Narva. 

Upon  the  approach  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  the  advanced 
guard  of  the  Russians,  consisting  of  5,000  men,  fled  ;  the  rout, 
terror,  and  disorder  of  their  flight,  with  the  Swedes  close  at 

24* 


282  BATTLE    OP   NARVA- 

their  heels,  threw  the  20,000  in  their  way  into  the  same  clis 
order:  they  ii*  their  flight,  spread  terror  and  consternation 
throughout  the  camp.  These  operations  had  given  very  little 
check  to  the  advance  of  the  king  of  Sweden  :  he  now  ap- 
peared before  the  Russian  camp,  well  intrenched,  and  defend- 
ed by  one  hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon.  Charles,  re- 
solved to  avail  himself  of  the  general  panic,  advanced  to  the 
attack  ;  the  Russians  made  a  firm  resistance  ;  the  Swedes, 
having  made  a  breach  with  their  cannon  in  their  intrench- 
ments,  advanced  to  'the  charge  with  fixed  bayonets,  favored 
by  a  violent  snow  storm,  and  overthrew  all  in  their  way.  A 
terrible  carnage  ensued  ;  the  Russians  fled  on  all  sides,  and 
abandoned  their  camp,  artillery  and  baggage  :  the  rout  and 
consternation  became  general  :  Charles,  with  his  little  troop, 
pursued  to  the  river — the  right  wing  in  attempting  to  cross, 
broke  down  the  bridge,  and  met  with  another  overthrow  in  the 
river  ;  the  left  wing  returned  to  their  camp,  where,  after  a  slight 
defence,  they  all  laid  down  their  arms  to  the  king  of  Sweden, 
who  received  their  submission  with  great  civility. 

Charles  detained  only  the  general  officers,  and  dismissed 
the  remainder  in  the  most  courteous  manner,  supplied  them 
with  boats  to  cross  the  river,  and  they  returned  into  Russia. 
Eighteen  thousand  Russians  had  fallen  in  their  intrenchments, 
besides  those  that  had  fallen  in  their  flight,  and  were  drowned 
in  the  river  :  the  Swedes  lost  but  six  hundred. 

This  almost  unexampled  overthrow,  saved  Russia  :  it  taught 
Peter,  that  numbers,  without  discipline,  would  rather  ruin, 
than  save  his  country ;  and  he  profited  by  the  lesson.  It  in- 
spired Charles  with  too  much  confidence  m  his  own  strength, 
and  too  much  contempt  for  his  enemies  ;  these  iwo  evils  ruined 
his  cause. 

Charles,  wrapt  up  in  his  cloak,  threw  himself  upon  the 
ground,  (then  covered  with  snow,)  and  gave  himself  a  few 
hours  repose.  At  break  of  day,  he  prepared  to  attack  a  body 
of  30,000  Russians,  not  yet  subdued,  when  he  received  from 
(heir  general,  overtures  of  submission,  with  a  request,  that 
the  king  would  grant  them  the  same  favor  he  had  granted  to  the 
other  captives :  he  sent  his  assurances,  and  the  30,000  laid 
down  their  arms,  and  the  king  received  their  submission  with 
fheir  heads  uncovered,  at  the  head  of  less  than  7000  Swedes, 
sent  them  all  free,  back  into  their  own  country,  and  entered 
Narva  in  triumph.  Here  he  treated  the  general  officers  of 
the  Russians,  who  were  detained  as  prisoners,  with  great  lib- 


fr    PASSAGE    OF   THE    DWINA,  285 

erality  5  restored  their  swords,  supplied  them  with  money,  and 
conducted  with  great  modesty. 

This  overthrow,  caused  Augustus  to  raise  the  siege  of  Riga. 
The  Czar  received  the  news  of  the  destruction  of  his  army 
before  Narva,  when  advancing  by  forced  marches,  with  40,000 
men,  to  intercept  the  retieat  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  and  in 
high  expectation  of  enclosing  him  between  the  two  armies, 
and  thus  sealing  his  ruin  :  he  abandoned  his  enterprise,  re- 
turned to  Moscow,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  discipline  of  his 
army. 

Upon  the  request  of  Augustus,  they  soon  had  an  interview 
at  Birsen,  in  Lithuania,  to  concert  measures  of  general  defence 
and  safety  ;  and  gave  themselves  up  to  dissipation  fifteen  days. 

Charles  passed  the  winter  at  Narva,  and  upon  the  opening 
of  spring,  appeared  in  Lithuania.  The  Saxons  had  taken  the 
field  under  Mareschal  Stenau,  and  Ferdinand,  duke  of  Cour- 
land,  and  opposed  his  passage  of  the  river  Dwina. 

Charles  assembled  his  boats,  and  embarked  his  troops  with 
a  favorable  wind  ;  at  the  same  time  he  let  off  a  great  number 
of  boats,  filled  with  burning  hay,  straw,  &c. ;  this  smoke 
blew  over  upon  the  enemy,  and  concealed  the  movements  of 
the  king.  He  passed  in  good  order,  and,  as  at  Copenhagen, 
leapt  into  the  water  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  landed  his  can- 
non, and  formed  his  army  on  shore  before  the  smoke  was  suf- 
ficiently cleared  away  to  give  the  Saxons  opportunity  to  make 
resistance. 

Mareschal  Stenau,  as  soon  as  the  air  was  cleared,  lost  not 
a  moment ;  he  fell  upon  the  Swedes  with  the  flower  of  his 
cavalry  ;  the  shock  was  violent;  the  Swedes  were  broken,  and 
fled  into  the  river  ;  Charles,  with  great  composure,  recovered 
the  shock,  rallied  his  troops  in  the  water,  advanced  to  the 
charge,  a»d  recovered  the  plain. 

An  action  commenced — the  Saxons  fought  with  great  bra- 
very, and  the  duke  of  Courland  thrice  penetrated  into  the 
king's  guards,  had  two  horses  killed  under  him  ;  was  repulsed, 
wounded,  and  carried  off  the  field.  The  Saxons  fled,  and  the 
kins  advanced  to  Mittau,  the  capital  of  Courland  ;  here  h«  re- 
ceived the  submission  of  the  whole  duchy. 

He  next  marched  into  Lithuania,  and  formed  the  plan  of  de- 
posing Augustus,  king  of  Poland,  through  the  intrigues  of  his 
own  subjects.  The  operations  and  success  of  this  intrigue,  will 
give  the  best  illustration  of  tke  strength  and  genius  of  the  feu- 
dal government  of  Poland. 


284  GOVERNMENT    OF    POLAND. 

This  kingdom  was  larger  than  France,  watered  with  large 
and  fine  rivers,  and  possessed  a  rich  and  fertile  soil  ;  but  the 
natives  were  indolent,  the  nobility  rich,  and  the  peasantry 
slaves.  The  population  of  Poland  was  at  that  time  greater 
than  that  of  Sweden,  but  the  character  of  the  nation,  and  en- 
ergies of  the  government  very  different,  and  far  inferior. 

The  constitution  of  Poland  was  purely  Gothic.  Every 
gentleman  might  vote  for  the  choice  of  a  king,  and  even  be 
chosen  himself ;  this  general  liberty  of  suffrage  and  election, 
exposed  the  crown  always  to  the  highest  bidder.  The  nobility 
and  clergy  were  independent  of  the  crown  ;  but  the  peasantry 
were  bought  and  sold  like  cattle  upon  the  estates,  and  even 
their  lives  were  at  the  disposal  of  their  lords. 

In  the  midst  of  this  wretchedness,  the  Polanders  were  proud 
of  their  liberty,  and  of  their  republic  ;  and  gloried  in  the  title 
of  electors  of  kings,  and  destroyers  of  tyrants.  The  very 
seeds  of  discord,  riot  and  rebellion,  were  sown  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  Poland ;  and  at  the  coronation  of  the  king,  he  absolv- 
ed his  subjects  from  their  allegiance,  upon  his  infringing  the 
constitution  and  the  laws. 

All  offices  were  at  the  disposal  of  the  crown,  and  nothing 
was  hereditary,  but  the  estates  of  the  nobility  ;  yet  the  balance 
of  power  was  on  the  side  of  the  people.  The  king  could  not 
remove  an  office  he  had  once  conferred,  but  the  people  could 
depose  the  king,  if  he  violated  one  law  of  the  republic.-; 

Two  great  parties  were  ever  the  standing  monuments  of  fac- 
tion in  this  government — the  one  in  office,  and  the  other  in  ca- 
balling to  obtain  promotion.  The  same  bitterness  and  jealousy 
that  prevailed  against  each  other,  involved  the  king  ;  both 
jealous  of  their  power,  held  themselves  as  the  guardians  of 
their  liberties. 

The  diets,  or  states  general,  regulated  all  the  affairs  of  the 
republic.  These  were  composed  of  the  clergy,  nobility,  and 
gentry,  which  formed  an  elective  body,  over  which  the  arch- 
bishop of  Gnesna,  as  primate  of  the  republic,  presided  ;  and 
in  case  of  an  interregnum,  he  became  viceroy. 

This  council  met  alternately  in  Poland  and  Lithuania,  and 
sat  armed  in  council,  after  the  manner  of  their  forefathers — and 
every  gentleman  of  this  body  had  a  negative  upon  the  senate, 
and  by  his  single  protest  or  vote,  could  stop  the  unanimous 
resolves  of  all  the  others  ;  and  if  he  then  quitted  the  city  or 
town  where  the  diet  sat,  he  dissolved  the  assembly. 

These  seeds  of  rebellien   often   broke  out  into  open  vio- 


GOVERNMENT    OF   POLAND.  283 

lence;  the  diets  broke  up,  and  the  parties  held  separate  diets, 
II^UT  the  sanctity  of  the  king's  name,  and  often  without,  or 
against  his  knowledge  anri  consent,  as  the  parliament  of  Eng- 
land did,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.:  custom,  not  law,  sanction- 
ed these  cabals. 

In  this  feudal  government,  the  nobility  constituted  the  mili- 
tary strength  of  the  nation ;  the  peasantry  were  not  trusted 
with  arms :  and  to  secure  their  own  power  against  the 
crown,  they  did  not  build  forts  or  castles  of  strength  them- 
selves, nor  suffer  the  king.  These  armies,  like  the  old  feu- 
dal service  in  the  south  of  Europe,  were  assembled  on  sud- 
den emergencies,  kept  the  field  but  a  short  time,  for  the  want 
of  discipline  and  regular  supplies,  and  were  often  disbanded  in 
disgust. 

In  addition  to  this  force,  a  regular  guard  was  provided  for  the 
kingdom,  consisting  of  two  parts,  under  two  generals,  independ- 
ent of  each  other.  The  first,  in  Poland,  consisted  of  30,000 
men,  and  the  other  in  Lithuania  of  12,000  men. — These  gene- 
rals were  appointed  by  the  king,  but  were  amenable  only  to  the 
republic.  It  was  the  duty  of  the  state  to  support  this  force  : 
but  upon  their  neglect,  each  officer  was  bound  to  support  his 
separate  corps  undf  r  his  command  ;  which  he  did  by  depreda- 
tions upon  the  peasantry. 

Such  was  the  civil  and  military  strength  of  Poland,  when 
Charles  XII.  appeared  upon  its  borders.  In  addition  to 
this  imbecile  state  of  Poland,  a  civil  vvar  raged  in  Lithuania, 
between  two  rival  families  of  the  nobles.  Charles,  by  throw- 
ing his  weight  into  the  scate  of  the  one,  destroyed  the  resistance 
of  the  other,  and  secured  Lithuania. 

His  next  object  was  to  dethrone  Augustus  in  the  same 
way.  The  king  had  rendered  himself  unpopular,  by  intro- 
ducing Saxon  troops  into  Poland,  when  he  laid  siege  to  Ri- 
ga; this  jealousy  weakened  his  dependence  upon  the  army, 
then  only  about  18,000  strong,  and  rendered  the  situation  of 
the  king  very  critical  and  alarming ;  his  only  alternative  was, 
to  assemble  a  diet.  This  council,  when  assembled,  were  not 
so  much  prepared  to  grant  him  relief,  as  to  scrutinize  his 
measures  ;  and  it  soon  appeared  that  Charles  XII.  had  the 
strongest  party  in  the  diet. 

At  the  head  of  the  party  of  Charles,  stood  the  archbishop 
of  Gnesna,  primate  of  the  kingdom,  and  president  of  the 
council.  This  gra.n!  <;;^'iary,  being  well  versed  in  the  in- 
trigues of  Poland,  and  fired  with  resentment  for  some  former 


286  INTRI6CE9   OP    CHARLES   XII. 

disappointments,  began  to  open  the  way  for  a  great  revolu- 
tion. 

He  issued  circular  letters,  disclosing  the  weakness  and  cabals 
of  the  diet,  and  exhorting  to  national  union  5  at  the  same  time 
be  despatched  an  address  to  the  king  of  Sweden,  conjuring  him 
to  give  Peace  to  Poland  and  her  king.  A  negotiation  soon  en- 
sued between  the  minister  of  Charles,  and  the  prelate  £  and  the 
intrigues  at  the  prelate's  house,  regulated  the  movements  of 
the  diet.  Charles  seconded  these  measures  whilst  he  lay  with 
his  army  in  Lithuania,  by  publicly  declaring  that  he  did  not 
make  war  against  the  Poles,  but  only  against  Augustus  and  his 
Saxons  ;  that  the  great  object  of  his  visit  was,  to  restore  the 
liberty  of  Poland. 

At  this  time,  Peter  sent  20,000  Russians  into  Lithuania,  to 
support  the  cause  of  Augustus,  agreeable  to  treaty.  These,  by 
their  ravages,  distressed  the  Lithuanians,  rendered  the  cause  of 
Augustus  still  more  unpopular,  and  served  for  employment  to 
the  Swedes,  who  were  directed  to  harrass  and  drive  them  back 
into  Russia. 


CHAP.  II. 

Augustus  attempts  a  secret  peace,  with  Charles  "Kll — battle  of 
Cracow — battle  of  the  Bog — war  in  Polish  Prussia — in- 
trigues of  the  Primate — Augustus  deposed — Stanislaus  Lee- 
zinski  elected  king — capture  of  Leopold — coronation  of 
Stanislaus. 

IN  this  critical  and  alarming  state  of  Poland,  the  diet  broke 
up,  Feb.  1702  ;  but  the  senate  continued  at  Warsaw,  making 
provisional  laws  and  regulations  for  the  safety  of  the  king- 
dom ;  a  practice,  sanctioned  by  custom,  not  by  law.  They 
decreed  an  embassy  to  the  king  of  Sweden,  the  assembling  the 
nobles  in  defence  of  the  state;  and  attempted  at  the  same  time 
to  diminish  the  power  of  the  king.  This  attack  upon  the 
crown,  decided  the  fate  of  Poland. 

Augustus  resolved  to  make  a  secret  peace  with  Charles 
XII.  To  effect  this,  he  engaged  in  his  interest  the  countess 
of  Conigsmark,  (a  Swedish  lady,  to  whom  he  was  attached,) 
and  obtained  her  consent  to  negociate  for  him  with  the  king  of 
Sweden, under  cover  other  paying  her  respects  to  that  sovereign, 
in  whose  dominions  she  had  resided,  upon  one  of  her  estates. 


INTRIGUES    OF    CHARLES    XII.  287 


The  Countess  was  the  handsomest,  and  most  accomplished 
woman  of  the  age,  and  mother  of  the  great  mareschal  Saxe, 
who  became  so  illustrious  in  the  reign  of  Lewis  XV.  king  of 
France.  She  repaired  to  the  camp  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  and 
gained  access  to  his  minister,  but  not  to  the  king  ;  he  cautiously 
avoided  her. 

Resolved  to  accomplish  her  purpose,  the  countess  met  the 
king  in  a  narrow  pass,  stepped  from  her  coach,  and  threw  her- 
self in  his  way.  He  cooly  turned  about  his  horse,  and  returned 
to  his  tent,  choosing  to  evince  to  the  world,  that  he  prefered  be- 
ing vanquished,  rather  than  subdued  by  a  woman.  The  coun- 
tess returned  to  Augustus. 

At  this  time,  the  resolve  of  the  senate  had  reached  Au- 
gustus ;  he  took  advantage  of  it,  and  despatched  his  own 
minister  to  negociate  the  treaty.  Him  Charles  imprisoned, 
and  then  marched  to  Grodno.  The  deputation  from  the  sen- 
ate next  waited  upon  Charles  ;  these  he  received  with  great 
coolness  and  dignity.  The  conference  was  guarded,  and 
nothing  concluded.  Charles  then  seized  the  critical  moment, 
assured  them  that  he  would  settle  their  affairs  at  Warsaw, 
took  up  his  march,  and  entered  that  city  the  fifth  of  May, 
1702. 

This  movement  overawed  the  nation,  and  left  the  king  as  a 
fugitive,  without  strength,  without  troops,  and  without  resources  : 
these  he  attempted  to  supply  from  Saxony  ;  but  these  troops 
only  increased  the  general  jealousy  and  alarm. 

At  this  critical  moment,  the  cardinal  primate  repaired  to 
the  king  of  Sweden,  with  whom  he  held  a  long  conference 
standing,  which  Charles  closed  by  announcing,  "  I  will 
never  give  the  Poles  peace,  until  they  have  elected  a  new 
king  :"  this,  the  cardinal  caused  to  be  published  throughout 
Poland. 

The  crisis  had  now  arrived  ;  Augustus  had  assembled  his 
Saxons,  and  gone  in  quest  of  Charles,  then  advancing  to  Cra- 
cow, with  an  army  of  12.000  men.  Augustus  met  him  upon  a 
spacious  plain  with  24,000  men ;  the  action  commenced  by  a 
discharge  of  artillery,  and  the  young  duke  of  Holstein  fell  at  the 
head  of  the  Swedish  cavalry. 

Struck  with  the  loss  of  this  brave  officer,  and  fired  with 
ardor  and  rage,  Charles,  at  the  head  of  his  guards,  rushed  in- 
to the  heat  of  the  action  ;  the  contest  was  bravely  supported  ; 
the  prize  was  the  crown  of  Poland.  The  Saxons  were  bro- 
ken— retired,  and  rallied  to  the  charge,  again  and  again,  until 


288  INTRIGUES    OF    CHARLES   XII. 

overpowered  by  the  resistless  impetuosity  of  the  Swedes, 
they  fled  in  disorder,  leaving  their  camp,  artillery  and  hag- 
gage  in  the  hands  of  the  victors.  Charles  passed  these  with- 
out notice,  pursued  the  vanquished  to  Cracow,  and  would 
have  entered  the  city  commixed  with  the  fugitives,  if  the 
gates  had  not  been  closed  upon  him  :  these  were  ir,st<n,;ly 
forced,  and  charles  entered  in  triumph;  not  a  gun  was  fired  ; 
the  soldiers  fled  to  the  castle  ;  Charles  entered  the  castle,  com- 
mixed with  the  fugitives,  and  the  city  was  reduced  without  a 
gun. 

Charles  immediately  left  the  city,  to  pursue  Augustus  in  his 
flight,  determined  to  strike  the  finishing  blow.  In  the  midst 
of  his  zeal,  his  career  was  arrested  by  a  fall  from  his  horse, 
which  broke  his  thigh.  This  confined  him  at  Cracow  six  weeks, 
and  gave  Augustus  time  to  recover  in  some  measure  his  defeat. 
lit'  caused  it  to  be  published  extensively,  that  Charles  XII.  "''is 
dead,  by  the  fall.  This  was  generally  believed,  and  inv  >  -d 
the  Poles  in  a  new  dilemma.  Augustus  seized  the  favor;, Me 
moment,  and  assembled  a  diet,  first  at  Marienburg,  and  next  at 
Lublin  :  the  representation  'was  full,  and  the  cardinal  primate 
was  present. 

The  misfortunes  of  the  king,  had  learnt  him  to  become  more 
affable  and  conciliatory,  and  his  sufferings  had  softened  the  pas- 
sions of  the  diet ;  a  general  harmony  prevailed,  and  Augustus 
received  a  new  oath  of  allegiance  from  the  diet,  the  purport  of 
which  was,  "  that  they  never  had,  and  never  would  attempt 
any  thing  prejudicial  to  the  cause  of  Augustus;"  and  the  diet  re- 
solved to  maintain  an  army  of  50,000  men,  for  the  protection  of 
the  crown. 

Charles  was  now  well  ;  he  summoned  a  new  diet  at  Warsaw, 
and  by  the  intrigues  of  the  primate,  set  this  diet  to  counteract 
the  late  diet  of  Augustus,  by  their  disputes  and  decrees  ;  and 
having  received  6000  foot  and  8000  horse  from  Sweden,  he 
went  in  quest  of  general  ^ff-nau,  at  the  head  of  the  Saxons.  In 
May,  1703 — he  came  up  with  him  behind  the  river  Bog, 
near  the  confines  of  Prussia.  Charles  plunged  his  horse  in- 
to the  river,  at  the  head  of  his  cavalry ;  the  resistance  was 
slight,  the  Saxons  fled,  the  king  pursued,  and  their  army  was  dis- 
persed. 

Augustus  fled  to  Thorn,  in  Polish  Prussia  ;  Charles  pur- 
sued, and  laid  siege  to  Thorn.  To  reduce  this  strong  city,  it 
became  necessary  to  receive  cannon,  men,  and  supplies  from 
Sweden ;  these  in  their  way,  met  with  some  delay  in  passing 


OP    GWARLES    XII.  28^ 

by  Dantzic,  another  free  city  of  Polish  Prussia,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Vistula  ;  this  slight  offence  cost  them  100,000  crowns. 

Upon  the  reduction  of  Thorn,  at  the  expiration  of  one  month., 
Charles  rewarded  the  governor  for  his  bravery,  but  exacted  a 
contribution  of  forty  thousand  crowns.  Upon  a  slight  offence 
from  the  city  of  Elbing,  Charles  exacted  at  the  point  of  the  bay- 
onet a  contribution  of  260,000  crowns.  All  this  secured  the 
overthrow  of  Augustus. 

During  these  operations  of  Charles,  the  cardinal  primate  re- 
paired to  Warsaw,  attended  by  a  retinue  of  soldiers  from  his 
own  estates  ;  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  published  in  the  name 
of  the  assembly,  "  that  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony,  was  incapa- 
ble of  wearing  the  crown  of  Poland  ;"  and  all  the  assembly  pro- 
nounced the  throne  vacant. 

The  cardinal  now  flattered  himself  that  he  had  accomplished 
his  purpose,  and  restored  the  crown  to  the  family  of  John  So- 
bieski,  in  the  person  of  his  son  James  5  who  was  waiting  with 
impatience  at  Breslaw  for  the  issue. 

Augustus,  alive  to  the  views  of  the  primate,  sent  a  party  of 
horse,  surprised  James  Sobieski  on  a  hunting  party  with  his 
brother,  conveyed  them  into  Saxony,  and  imprisoned  them  at 
Leipsic.  The  same  disaster  awaited  Augustus.  Gen.  Kens- 
child  surprised  him  at  table  with  his  friends,  near  Cracow — 
Augustus  fled — Renschild  pursued — the  flight  continued  four 
days,  almost  in  close  view ;  but  Augustus  escaped — and  the 
king  of  Sweden  was  victorious  in  Poland. 

Charles  next  offered  the  crown  of  Poland  to  Alexander,  a 
third  son  of  John  Sobieski.  Alexander  refused,  alleging,  "  that 
nothing  should  induce  him  to  take  advantage  of  his  brother's 
misfortunes."  Charles,  agreeable  to  the  views  of  his  minister, 
offered  the  crown  to  his  favorite,  Stanislaus  Leczinski.  He  in 
his  turn  refused  it. 

Charles  sent  a  message  to  the  assembly  at  Warsaw,  *•  that 
they  must  elect  a  king  of  Poland  in  five  days,  and  that  Stanis- 
laus must  be  the  man.''  The  cardinal  primate  used  all  his  in- 
fluence to  defeat  the  election,  but  without  effect ;  he  withdrew 
from  the  council,  and  Stanislaus  was  elected,  and  proclaimed 
king,  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  diet,  July  12,  1705. 
Charles  repaired  in  secret  to  Warsaw,  and  witnessed  the  scene. 

Charles  compelled  the  cardinal,  with  all  the  abswifees  and 
opposers,  to  appear  and  do  homage  to  the  new  king,  and  attend 
him  to  the  quarters  of  the  king  of  Sweden  :  who  paid  to  Stan- 

25 


290  R3VOLUTON  OF  POLAND. 

islaus  all  the  honours  due  to  the  king  of  Poland,  and  supplied 
him  with  troops  and  money,  to  secure  his  power ;  took  up  his 
majch  to  finish  the  conquest  of  Poland,  and  laid  siege  to  Leo- 
pold. 

This  strong  town  was  carried  by  assault,  after  a  siege  of  one 
day,  and  yielded  an  immense  treasure  to  Charles.  Stanislaus 
remained  at  Warsaw  with  the  cardinal  primate,  the  bishop  of 
Posnania,  and  some  grandees  of  Poland,  who  composed  his 
court,  to  arrange  the  affairs  of  his  kingdom,  with  a  guard  of 
about  GOOO  men. 

Augustus,  apprized  of  the  situation  of  Charles,  and  the  fall 
of  Leopold,  collected  a  force  of  about  20,000  men,  mostly  Sax- 
ons, and  by  a  rapid  movement,  fell  upon  Warsaw  by  surprise. 
The  city  was  unfortified,  and  defenceless,  against  such  a  force. 
Stanislaus  fled,  his  family  and  his  friends  scattered,  and  thus 
made  their  escape ;  his  youngest  daughter  was  concealed,  and 
afterwards  found  in  a  manger,  a  humble  station  for  her  who 
was  destined  to  become  queen  of  France. 

Augustus  withdrew  from  Warsaw  with  his  forces,  committed 
the  command  to  count  Scullemburg,  left  the  country  to  the  ra- 
vages of  the  two  kings,  retired  into  Saxony,  and  fortified  his 
capital.  Scullemburg  had  the  adroitness  to  elude  the  pursuit  of 
the  king  of  Sweden,  and  get  off  his  army  in  good  order,  thus 
leaving  Stanislaus  in  quiet  possession  of  his  crown. 

The  pope  threatened  all  the  ecclesiastics  of  Poland,  with  the 
thunders  of  his  power,  if  they  attempted  to  assist  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Stanislaus,  or  to  take  any  measures  contrary  to  the  inter- 
ests of  Augustus. 

Charles  set  his  thunders  at  defiance,  and  witnessed  (incog.) 
the  magnificent  coronation  of  Stanislaus  and  his  queen,  at 
Warsaw,  October,  4,  1705,  by  the  hands  of  the  archbishop  of 
Leopold,  together  with  several  other  prelates  ;  the  crown,  pla- 
ced upon  Stanislaus,  was  placed  upon  the  object  of  the  labours 
of  Charles. 


CHAP.  III. 

Reduction  of  Narva,  by  Peter  I. — Peter  commences  the  city 
of  Petersburg — Charles  XII.  enters  Saxony — peace  with 
Augustus — Distresses  of  Poland — Charles  XII.  commences 
his  march  into  Russia— Battle  of  the  Berezina. 

During  these  operations  in  Poland,  the  Czar  of  Russia  was 


PETERSBURG.  291 

not  idle ;  he  had  leartit  in  his  travels  in  Holland,  how  the 
Dutch  recovered  their  country  from  the  sea,  by  their  unreraitted 
efforts,  and  caused  the  finest  and  most  commercial  cities  in  Eu- 
rope, to  rise  up  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  and  stand  firm  upon 
the  softest  mud. 

Peter  was  now  engaged  in  rescuing  from  the  Baltic,  a  scite 
for  his  new  city  of  Petersburg.  To  accomplish  this,  it  became 
necessary  for  him  to  obtain  possession  of  Narva,  lying  in  th$ 
neighbourhood  of  his  object.  He  laid  siege  again  to  Narva, 
and  carried  it  by  assault,  August,  1703,  after  a  regular  siege  ; 
here  he  was  constrained  to  draw  his  sword  against  his  own  sol- 
diers, to  check  their  cruel  licentiousness  towards  the  inhabitants, 
alter  their  surrender. 

Upon  the  fall  of  Narva,  he  drew  the  plan,  and  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  city  of  Petersburg,  which,  for  its  commerce,  wealth, 
regularity  and  beauty,  has  become  the  admiration  of  Europe. 
To  effect  this,  he  had  the  same  obstacles  to  overcome,  that 
were  peculiar  to  Amsterdam,  in  Holland,  a  foundation  of  mud, 
unconquerable  to  any  other  man  than  Peter,  together  with  a 
climate  so  inhospitable  as  to  destroy  two  hundred  thousand 
men  in  the  early  stages  of  the  enterprise. 

Firm  to  his  purpose,  Peter  surmounted  all  this  in  the  midst 
of  an  unsuccessful  war,  and  even  when  his  allies  were  falling 
beneath  the  sword  of  his  haughty  overbearing  rival.  This  very 
war  he  turned  to  his  advantage,  to  prosecute  his  plan,  and  bring 
forward  his  city,  whilst  Charles  was  employed  in  giving  away 
crowns  in  Poland. 

In  1704,  Petersburg  had  become  the  residence  of  more  than 
three  hundred  thousand  souls,  which  Peter  had  transplanted 
there  from  different  parts  of  his  dominions,  and  in  1705,  when 
Stanislaus  was  crowned  king  of  Poland,  Petersburg  had  become 
a  commercial  city,  and  its  harbour  was  full  of  foreign  ships. 
The  liberality  of  Peter  drew  strangers  of  all  descriptions,  from 
all  parts  of  Europe,  and  Petersburg  was  soon  filled  with  com- 
merce and  the  arts. 

In  the  midst  of  these  labors,  he  rendered  some  assistance  to 
Augustus  5  but  his  means  could  not  accomplish  both  ends — his 
new  city  grew,  but  Augustus  fell.  This  fall  roused  up  the 
Czar  to  new  efforts ;  he  saw  his  own  dominions  laid  open  to  the 
conqueror,  upon  this  event ;  and  he  put  forth  his  efforts  to  re- 
cover, what  he  had  not  been  careful  to  prevent.  He  invited 
Augustus,  (by  his  minister  Patkul,)  to  a  conference  at  Grodno ; 
and  repaired  thither  with  an  army  of  70,000  men. 


W2  PETERSBURG. 

Augustus  met  him,  attended  by  general  Scullemburg,  and  the 
scattered  remains  of  his  troops.  The  conference  was  short : 
the  Czar  was  called  suddenly  to  quell  an  insurrection  in  Astra- 
ean,  and  left  his  army  to  co-operate  with  Augustus,  in  recover- 
ing the  crown  of  Poland. 

Augustus  soon  after  ordered  his  minister,  John  Patkul,  to  be 
arrested  and  imprisoned  at  Dresden,  upon  a  suspicion  of  an 
intrigue,  to  settle  a  separate  peace  between  the  Czar,  and  the 
king  of  Sweden. 

The  plan  of  Augustus  in  distributing  his  Russian  and  Saxon 
troops  into  small  divisions,  to  harass  and  distress  the  Poles,  as 
well  as  the  king  of  Sweden,  led  to  the  most  active  operations. 
Charles  co-operated  with  Stanislaus,  and  they  fell  upon  these 
several  divisions  in  such  rapid  succession,  that  Poland  was  soon 
cleared,  the  Russians  were  driven  behind  the  Boristhenes,  and 
all  the  treasures  of  Augustus  and  his  Russian  allies,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Charles  ;  together  with  an  entire  regiment  of  French 
soldiers,  which  had  been  taken  by  the  Saxons  at  the  famous 
battle  of  Hochstet,  in  their  war  with  Lewis  XIV.  1704,  and 
entered  into  the  Saxon  service. 

Charles  received  this  regiment  at  their  request,  into  his  ser- 
vice, on  the  same  day  of  their  capture.  Having  -settled  the 
conquest  of  Poland,  and  secured  the  crown  to  Stanislaus,  he 
prepared  to  enter  Germany.  Charles  by  rapid  movements, 
marched  into  Saxony,  where  he  was  triumphant,  and  gave  law 
to  the  electorate. 

On  his  passing  through  Silesia,  he  gave  a  general  alarm  te 
the  empire,  already  torn  and  harassed  by  the  distressing  wars 
with  Lewis  XI V.  who  was  supporting  the  claims  of  the  house 
©f  Bourbon  upon  the  throne  of  Spain. 

They  were  soon  relieved  ;  his  stay  was  short  in  Saxony  ;  he 
visited  the  field  of  Lutzen,  rendered  so  famous  by  the  death  of 
the  great  Gustavus  Adolphus  ;  paid  a  tribute  of  respect  to 
his  memory,  and  exclaimed  ;  "  I  have  endeavoured  to  live  like 
him,  God  perhaps  may  grant  me  as  glorious  a  death." 

Charles  proceeded  to  levy  enormous  contributions  upon  Sax- 
ony, to  the  amount  of  625,000  rix  dollars  per  month,  with  daily 
rations  for  his  army  whilst  he  staid  ;  established  a  new  and  en- 
ergetic police:  and  attended  the  great  fair  of  Leipsi-c;  the 
whole  electorate  enjoyed  the  most  piofound  tranquility,  during 
the  stay  of  th**  king  of  Sweden. 

During  thtse  movements  in  Saxony,  Augustus,  deprived  of 


OF  AUGUSTUS  x?9^ 

both  of  his  crowns,  was  a  wanderer  in  Poland.  In  the  depth 
of  despair  he  wrote  to  the  king  of  Sweden,  secretly,  by  the  ba- 
ron de  Imhoff,  and  sued  for  peace.  Charles  received  the  let- 
ter, and  replied,  "  I  consent  to  give  peace  to  Augustus  upon 
the  following  conditions,  which  can  never  be  altered  : 

1.  "  That  Augustus  renounce  the  crown  of  Poland  forever  : 
that  he  acknowledge  Stanislaus  as  lawful  king  :    and  that  he 
promise  never  to  mount  the  throne  of  Poland,  not  even   after 
the  death  of  Stanislaus." 

2.  "  That  he  renounce  all  other  treaties,  and  particularly 
those  he  has  made  with  Muscovy." 

During  this  negociation,  a  Russian  army,  under  prince  Men- 
zikoff,  appeared  in  Poland,  joined  Augustus,  and  threw  him  in- 
to the  greatest  embarrassments.  An  action  commenced  at  the 
same  time,  with  a  detachment  of  Swedes,  in  which,  for  the  first 
time,  the  Russians  were  victorious  ;  and  Augustus  entered 
Warsaw  in  triumph.  In  the  midst  of  Te  Deum,  which  Augus- 
tus had  ordered  for  the  successful  action,  a  messenger  arrived 
with  the  treaty  of  peace  from  Charles. 

Augustus  signed  it,  resigned  his  crown,  and  set  off  for  Saxo- 
ny to  meet  Charles.  The  two  sovereigns  met:  Charles  receiv- 
ed, and  treated  Augustus  respectfully,  and  gave  him  the  »ight 
hand ;  but  compelled  him  to  write  a  letter  of  congratulation  to 
Stanislaus  ;  renounce  the  title  of  king  of  Poland,  and  erase  it 
from  the  public  prayers. 

Fired  with  resentment  at  this  inglorious  peace,  the  Czar  re- 
tntered  Poland  at  the  head  of  60,000  men,  flew  to  Leopold,  as- 
sembled a  diet,  and  ordered  a  new  king  of  Poland  to  be  elected. 
The  factions  of  Leopold  controlled  the  diet ;  Peter  transferred 
the  diet  to  Lublin  :  factions  still  prevailed — they  made  no 
choice,  renounced  both  kings,  and  dissolved  the  diet. 

This  threw  the  republic  into  an  unparalleled  state  of  wretch- 
edness :  the  sword  of  civil  war  was  drawn;  the  torch  of  civil 
war  was  lit;  conflict,  carnage,  pillage,  and  conflagration  mark- 
ed themovements  of  all  the  parties,  and  the  Poles  abhorred 
alike  their  kings,  the  Czar,  and  Charles  XII. 

In  the  midst  of  this  state  of  wretchedness  and  distress,  Stan- 
islaus appeared  in  Poland  with  a  bod  v  of  troops  from  Saxony  5 
the  discipline  of  his  troops,  and  his  money,  rallied  the  Poles 
around  his  standard,  and  he  was  soon  at  the  head  of  such  a 
force,  as  compelled  the  Czar  to  abandon  Poland. 

At  this  critical  moment  appeared  a  third  party  in  Poland^ 
25* 


294  CHARLES  XII, 

headed  by  count  Sinkausky,  grand  general  of  the  crown.  He 
made  great  efforts  to  be  elected  king  and  failed,  and  was  iiow 
become  the  head  of  a  party  of  some  considerable  force,  whose 
only  subsistence  was  pillage.  This  third  scourge  of  Poland, 
was  of  short  continuance ;  they  soon  abandoned  their  chiefs, 
repaired  to  the  standard  of  Stanislaus,  and  he  became  the  ac- 
knowledged sovereign  of  Poland. 

During  these  movements  in  Poland,  Charles  held  his  court  at 
Altranstadt,  where  he  received  ambassadors  from  all  the  pow- 
ers of  the  south  of  Europe,  then  engaged  in  the  great  contest 
about  the  Spanish  succession.  Although  Charles  had  pledged 
himself  in  1700,  that  he  would  not  interfere  in  the  quarrel — 
yet  the  great  duke  of  Marlborough  could  not  be  persuaded,  that 
money  would  not  make  a  man  change  his  opinion,  and  even 
his  word,  until,  as  ambassador  of  queen  Ann,  he  had  visited 
Charles  XII.  king  of  Sweden. 

Charles  had  now  passed  one  whole  year  in  Saxony,  where 
by  his  diplomatic  skill,  he  had  humbled  the  emperor  of  Germa- 
ny, protected  the  Lutherans  in  Silesia,  dethroned  one  king, 
crowned  another,  and  rendered  himself  the  admiration  of  Eu- 
rope, and  the  terror  of  the  north.  He  prepared  to  depart. 

On  the  approach  of  his  departure,  he  ordered  the  grand  Ma- 
reschal  of  his  household,  to  lay  before  him  the  rout  from  Leip- 
sic,  to  all  the  capitals  in  Europe  :  and,  September,  1707?  he 
commenced  his  march  for  Poland,  at  the  head  of  43,000  men, 
tojntn  count  Levenhaupt,  with  20,000  more,  together  with  such 
recruits  as  weie  often  arriving  from  Sweden.  At  the  head  of 
this  army,  he  received  an  ambassador  from  the  sultan  of  Con- 
stantinople, with  a  present  of  one  hundred  Swedes,  purchased 
of  the  Tartars,  and  the  compliments  ot  the  ambassador,  upon 
the  accession  of  Stanislaus. 

Charles,  at  the  head  of  this  strong  force,  cleared  Poland  of 
all  the  Russians,  settled  the  tranquillity  of  the  kingdom,  left 
Stanislaus  10,000  Swedes,  for  the  protection  of  his  crown,  and 
commenced  his  march,  amidst  frost  and  snow,  in  the  month  of 
January,  1708,  to  surprize  the  Czar  in  Grodno. 

Peter  had  the.  good  luck  to  escape  at  the  north  gate,  when 
Charles  entered  at  the  south  ;  and  made  his  retreat.  The  next 
da*',  Peter,  finding  that  Charles  had  advanced  by  a  rapid 
movement,  with  only  600  of  his  guards,  surprised  the  king 
of  Sweden  in  his  turn,  at  Grodno,  with  a  force  of  1500 
men  :  an  action  ensued  and  the  impetuosity  of  Charles,  com- 
pelled Peter  to  flee  with  precipitation,  and  secure  his  retreat. 


BATTLE  OP   THE    BEREZINA.  295 

Peter  collected  his  forces  in  Lithuania,  and  retired  into  Mus- 
covy, by  forced  inarches,  and  laid  waste  the  country.  Charles 
pursued  with  rapid  movements — harrassing  a  d  distressing  the 
Russians  in  their  flight:  the  wilds  of  Muscovy,  covered  only 
with  morasses  and  deep  forests,  almost  impenetrable,  with  a 
scanty  supply  of  subsistence — rendered  this  flight  extremely  dis- 
tressing j  and  to  crown  all,  it  was  in  the  heart  of  a  Russian 
winter.  The  Czar  continued  to  retire,  through  the  winter  and 
spring.  Charles  advanced  j  and  on  the  25th  of  June,  they  met 
on  the  opposite  banks  of  the  Berezina.  Here  the  Czar  had 
collected  his  forces,  intrenched  his  camp,  and  awaited  the  ap- 
proach of  the  king  of  Sweden. 

Charles,  by  gaining  a  pass,  crossed  the  river,  and  attacked 
and  routed  the  Czar — who  retired  on  to  the  Boristhenes,  destroy- 
ing the  roads  and  bridges,  and  laying  waste  the  country. 

Charles  fell  in  with  an  army  of  SOjOOO  Russians,  strongly  in- 
trenched behind  a  morass  :  impatient  for  the  attack,  he  de- 
tached a  party  of  horse,  to  take  the  enemy  in  flank — plunged 
into  the  morass,  at  the  head  of  his  guards,  and  commenced 
the  assault :  the  resistance  was  firm,  bnt  the  Russians  were 
btoken  and  dispersed,  and  the  action  was  decisive.  This 
memorable  action,  caused  this  memorable  medal.  Upon 
one  side  was  inscribed — Sylvas^paludas,  agger  as,  hostcs,  virti. 
Woods, -marshes,  mounds,  and  enemies  conquered.  Upon 
the  other — Victrices  capias  alium  laturus  in  orbem.  Watting 
his  warlike  troops  to  the  other  world. 

Upon  the  loss  of  this  action,  the  Czar  sued  for  peace :  to 
which  Charles  replied,  "  I  will  treat  at  Moscow."  Charles 
advanced  to  Smolensk:  here  he  attacked  a  body  of  10,(  00 
horse,  and  6,000  Cossacks,  with  his  accustomed  impetuosity. 
The  troops  were  routed,  and  fled  :  Charles  pursued  ;  the  Cos- 
sacks ambushed  him  at  the  head  of  his  guard,  and  cut  off  his 
communication  with  his  main  body  :  a  desperate  conflict  ensu- 
ed— the  king  was  dismounted,  his  horse  killed,  and  he  engaged 
hand  to  hand,  with  these  savages  of  the  north,  and  by  his  depe- 
rafe  valour,  he  killed  and  kept  at  bay  these  desperate  assailants, 
with  the  loss  of  all  his  attendants  except  five. 

In  this  critical  and  alarming  situation,  a  colonel  Dardof,  at 
the  head  of  a  little  band,  broke  through  the  Tartars,  relieved 
the  king,  and  put  the  enemy  to  flight.  Charles  with  his  usu- 
al intrepidity,  mounted  his  horse,  put  himself  at  thf  head  of  his 
troops,  and  pursued  the  fugitives,  more  than  two  leagues  on  his 
route  to  Moscow, 


296  BATTLE  OP  THE  MOBASS. 

Charles,  who  had  advanced  more  than  five  hundred  leagues, 
into  the  heart  of  an  enemy's  country,  a»niust  the  most  unpar- 
alleled successes — began  now  to  feel  the  want  of  recruits,  to 
supply  the  place  of  those  who  had  purchased  his  victories  by 
their  death  ;  and  others  who  were  sick,  or  dead,  with  the  fa- 
tigues and  diseases  of  the  march;  together  with  supplies  and 
military  stores  for  his  arrny,  through  the  severities  of  a  Rus- 
sian winter.  Knowing  that  Peter  had  laid  waste  the  country, 
and  destroyed  the  bridges  arid  the  roads  leading  to  Moscow — 
he  began  to  pause  and  consider:  his  only  dependence  now 
was,  on  the  arrival  of  general  Levenhaupt,  with  stores  and 
recruits  from  Sweden,  to  reinforce  and  refresh,  as  well  as  sup- 
port his  army. 

In  this  situation  Charles  commenced  a  negotiation  with 
Mazeppa,  prince  of  the  Ukraine  Cossacks,  who  engaged  to 
supply  him  with  30,000  men,  ammunition,  provisions,  mon- 
ey, &c.  and  to  meet  him,  with  these  supplies,  at  a  given  time 
and  place. 

Pleased  with  this  new  fund  of  resources,  and  having  the  more 
confidence  in  Mazeppa,  as  a  Polander  by  birth  and  education, 
and  then  at  enmity  with  the  Czar — Charles  turned  aside  from 
the  road  to  Moscow,  and  attempted  to  penetrate,  by  devious 
ways,  into  the  almost  impenetrable  forests  of  the  Ukrain,  in 
quest  of  the  prince  of  the  Tartars. 

In  this  attempt  he  lost  almost  all  his  artillery  and  baggage, 
in  passing  the  rivers,  and  deep  morasses  of  the  forests  ;  ex- 
hausted with  fatigue,  and  in  want  of  almost  all  things,  he  arriv- 
ed at  the  place  of  general  rendezvous,  at  the  time  appointed. 
Mazeppa  appeared ;  but  to  the  astonishment  of  the  king,  it 
was  only  to  announce,  that  Peter,  apprised  of  his  treachery, 
had  intercepted  all  his  plans,  destroyed  his  army,  and  carried 
off  his  treasures ;  and,  instead  of  an  ally,  Charles  found  a  fu- 
gitive, who  relied  upon  his  protection,  and  who  was  pursued 
by  the  same  troops  that  had  ruined  him. 

At  this  eventful  moment,  Levenhaupt  arrived ;  not/  with 
the  15,000  Swedes  he  had  led  out  of  Sweden — not  with  the 
convoy  of  provisions  and  military  stores,  to  replenish  the  ar- 
my of  the  king — but  with  the  news,  that  the  Czar  had  attack- 
ed him,  on  the  7th  of  October,  1708,  near  the  town  of  Lerno, 
upon  the  Boristhenes,  with  a  greatly  superior  force;  that  he 
had  had  the  honor  to  rout  the  Czar,  in  five  successive  engage- 
ments, and  had  cut  his  way  through  the  Russians,  with  the 
loss  of  ten  or  twelve  thousand  men,  together  with  all  hi* 


SIE&E  OF  PULTOWA.  "297 

convoy  of  provisions  and  military  stores,  and  after  suffering  in- 
credible hardships,  to  penetrate  to  the  camp  of  the  king,  with 
this  handful  of  men 

The  memorable  winter  of  1709,  had  now  set  in.  In  the 
midst  of  these  disasters,  Charles  made  a  movement  to  seize  on 
the  town  of  Pultowa,  (a  strong  magazine  of  the  Czar's  upon  ihe 
eastern  extremity  of  the  Ukrain,)  defended  by  a  regular  force 
of  10,000  men,  and  covered  by  the  Czar,  with  an  army  of 
70,000  The  Swedish  king  had  now  about  30,000  men  : 
2000  of  these,  he  had  the  distressing  mortification  to  witness 
the  loss  of,  by  the  severity  of  cold  and  hunger,  on  his  march  to 
Pultowa. 

On  the  10th  of  May,  he  sat  down  before  the  town,  and  com- 
menced the  siege.  During  the  operations  of  the  siege,  Charles 
received  a  wound  in  his  heel,  which  deprived  him  of  the  use  of 
his  leg,  but  not  of  his  spirits.  On  the  llth  of  July,  the  Czar 
advanced  to  the.  relief  of  Pultowa  :  Charles  marched  out  of 
his  trenches  to  meet  him,  carried  on  a  litter. 

This  was  not  the  action  of  Narva  ;  the  Russians  were  now 
trained  to  arms  and  discipline.  The  Swedes  charged  the  Rus- 
sians with  their  usual  impetuosity  ;  the  Russians  were  routed; 
they  recovered,  and  rallied  to  the  charge,  penetrated  the  camp 
of  the  king,  three  times  shot  away  his  litter,  and  after  a  despe- 
rate conflict  of  two  hours,  routed  and  destroyed  his  army. 
Charles  fled  on  horseback ;  attended  with  a  few  of  his  princi- 
pal officers,  and  a  few  stragglers,  (in  all  about  three  hundred,) 
and  took  refuge  with  the  Turks. 

Thus  closed  the  most  brilliant,  mad  career  of  glory,  the  world 
had  ever  witnessed,  since  the  dajs  of  Alexander ;  and  the  fatal 
battle  of  Pultowa,  sealed  the  fate  of  Charles  XII.  with  a  long 
adieu  to  all  his  visionary  schemes,  to  all  his  greatness;  placed 
his  rival  triumphant  upon  the  throne  of  the  Czars,  as  the  ar- 
biter of  the  north,  and  secured  to  him  the  prosecution  of  all  his 
vast  plans  and  enjoyments. 

Peter  pushed  the  enlargement  and  improvements  of  his  fa- 
vourite city,  extended  the  contemplated  canals,  amended  his 
code  of  laws,  to  govern,  tame  and  civilize  his  subjects  ;  extend- 
ed his  commerce,  manufactures  and  a&nculture,  by  every  possi- 
ble encouragement ;  and  thus  triumphed  over  Charles,  by  the 
greatness  of  his  life,  as  well  as  In  the  (rats  ol  his  arms. 

The  war  which  the  Spanish  succession  had  kindled  in  the 
south,  still  raged  \viih  violeore  ;  but  •'  •<>  fj«ll  of  Clta  l--s  XII. 
damped  the  ardor  of  Lewis  Xi  V.  and  leU  him  to  despair  ol  that 


29*  CHARLES  XII.  IN  TURKEY. 

aid,  which  he  had  vainly  hoped  for  from  the  king  of  Sweden, 
and  make  humiliating  concessions,  with  overtures  for  peace ; 
concessions  such  as  nothing  but  the  overbearing  demands  of 
the  allies  could  have  rejected.  The  spirit  of  the  parties  was 
not  yet  tamed,  and  the  war  continued  to  rage. 

Peter  restored  the  sovereignty  of  Poland,  to  Augustus  ;  de- 
posed Stanislaus,  expelled  the  Swedes,  took  possession  of  the 
provinces  upon  the  Baltic,  and  gave  peace  to  the  west. 

Charles,  agreeable  to  a  generous  maxim  of  the  Turks,  was 
honourably  received, and  conducted  to  Bender,  (a  frontier  town 
on  the  north  of  Turkey  in  Europe,)  and  saluted  upon  his  arri- 
val, with  a  discharge  of  artillery — where  agreeable  to  his  wish- 
es, he  and  his  retinue  were  lodged  in  a  little  camp,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Niester. 

Charles  and  his  camp  became  the  objects  of  the  day ;  were 
visited  by  all  the  neighbouring  country,  and  became  the  resort 
of  strangers.  His  temperance  and  devotion  endeared  him  to 
the  Turks,  and  they  were  ready  to  acknowledge  him  as  a  true 
musselman. 

Charles  repaired  to  Bender,  with  a  design  to  kindle  a  war 
between  the  Turks,  and  Russians  ;  and  he  commenced  h«s  in- 
trigues whh  the  sublime  Porte,  immediately  for  that  purpose, 
through  the  influence  of  his  envoy,  and  his  friend,  Poniatowski, 
a  Polish  nobleman  ;  who  commixed  with  the  Turks,  in  free  and 
familiar  intercourse,  and  often  presented  the  king  of  Sweden's 
memorials  to  the  Sultan,  Achmet  III.  on  his  way  to  mosque. 
By  this  means,  he  obtained  the  favors  of  the  Sultan,  for  the 
king  of  Sweden,  and  at  the  same  time  caused  the  grand  vizier 
to  be  deposed. 

One  instance  of  these  intrigues,  was  conducted  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner: — "The  grand  Seignior  goes  every  Friday  to 
mosque,  (a  Mahometan  temple,)  surrounded  by  his  Solacs, 
cr  guards,  whose  turbans  are  adorned  with  such  high  feathers, 
as  to  conceal  the  Sultan  from  th«  view  of  the  people.  When 
any  one  has  a  petition  to  present,  he  endeavours  to  mingle 
with  the  guards,  and  holds  up  the  paper  aloft.  Sometimes  the 
Sultan  condescends  to  receive  it  himself;  but  he  more  com- 
monly sends  an  Aga  to  take  charge  of  it,  and  causes  it  to  be 
laid  before  him  on  his  return  from  mosque.  Poniatowski 
had  no  other  method  of  conveying  the  king  of  Sweden's  com- 
plaint to  Achmet." 

The  t  fleets  of  this  petition  we*e,  a  present  from  the  Sultan 
to  the  king,  of  twenty-five  fine  Arabian  horses  5  one  of  which 


TRIUMPH   OF   PETER   THE    GJIEAT.  299 

having  carried  his  sublime  Highness,  was  covered  with  a 
saddle  ornamented  with  precious  stones,  and  furnished  with 
stirrups  of  pure  gold — accompanied  with  a  polite  letter,  with 
marks  of  approbation  towards  the  vizier;  but  he  was  soon  ban- 
ished to  Grim  Tartary. 

The  new  vizier  was  as  averse  to  war  with  the  Czar,  as  the 
former,  and  endeavoured  to  persuade  Charles  to  return  home  ; 
gave  him  eight  hundred  purses,  of  five  hundred  crowns  each, 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  journey ;  but  all  to  no  effect : 
Charles  was  not  ready.  The  Czar  was  on  the  throne  of  Rus- 
sia, and  Charles  was  determined  the  Turk  should  take  him 
off.  To  accomplish  this,  he  ceased  not  to  insinuate,  that  the 
successes  of  Peter  would  enable  him  to  gratify  his  ambition, 
and  make  himself  master  of  the  Black  Sea,  subdue  the  Cos- 
sacs — carry  his  arms  into  Crim  Tartary,  and  even  threaten 
Constantinople. 


CHAP.  TV. 

Peter  I.  enters  Moscow  in  triumph — War  between  Turkey  and 
Russia — perilous  escape  of  Ptter  /. — Peace — intrigues  of 
Charles  XII.  —Battle  of  Bender — War  rages  in  the  Swedish 
provinces  of  Germany. 

DUBLNG  these  intrigues  of  the  fugitive  king,  Peter  the  great 
appeared  at  the  head  of  his  empire  in  all  the  majesty  of  a 
great  monarch.  To.  impress  his  own  subjects,  and  the  world 
with  the  splendor  of  his  arms,  and  the  magnitude  of  his  vic- 
tories— (after  he  had  placed  Augustus  upon  the  throne  of  Po- 
land, and  given  peace  to  the  north,)  he  made  a  triumphant  en- 
try into  Moscow,  in  a  most  splendid  and  magnificent  style, 
after  the  manner  of  a  llornan  triumph — un'der  seven  trium- 
phal arches,  decorated  in  the  most  superb  style ;  the  whole  il- 
lustrative of  the  conquests  at  Pultowa,  by  a  display  of  the  tro- 
phies of  that  victory. 

A  regiment  of  guards  led  the  procession,  followed  by  the 
artillery  taken  from  the  Swedes,  each  piece  drawn  by  eight 
horses,  covered  with  scarlet  housings,  hanging  down  to  the 
ground  ;  next  the  Swedish  kettle  drums,  colours,  and  stand- 
ards, carried  by  the  officers  and  soldiers  who  had  captured 
them,  succeeded  by  the  finest  troops  of  the  Czar — and  in  sue- 


300  WAR   BETWEEN   RUSSIA   AND   TURKEY. 

cession  to  these  was  drawn  the  litter  of  Charles  XII.  on  which 
he  was  rarried  at  the  battle  of  Pultowa,  all  shattered  by  the 
cannon  shot,  and  displayed  conspicuously  upon  a  chariot — 
then  in  a  train  followed  all  the  Swedish  generals,  officers  and 
soldiers  taken  at  Pultowa,  two  and  two,  together  with  the 
king  of  Sweden's  prime  minister. 

Next  followed  the  Czar,  mounted  on  the  same  horse  he  rode 
at  the  battle  of  Pultowa,  and  followed  by  the  generals  who  com- 
manded on  that  glorious  day.  A  vast  train  of  waggons  loaded 
with  Swedish  military  stores,  preceded  by  a  regiment  of  Kussian 
guards,  closed  the  grand  procession. 

This  splendid  and  magnificent  display,  opened  a  new  field 
for  the  admiration  of  these  untutored  sons  of  the  north,  inspir- 
ed them  with  veneration  for  the  Czar,  for  their  country,  laws, 
religion  and  arms,  and  excited  a  new  spirit  of  emulation  in 
Russiar'  Charles  availed  himself  of  this  triumph,  to  gratify 
his  own  malignant  mortification,  by  representing  through 
fresh  intrigues,  the  dangerous  ambition  of  Peter ;  caused  a 
second  grand  Vizier  to  be  deposed,  and  obtained  a  successor 
to  his  wishes;  him  he  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  war.  Ach- 
met  himself,  had  now  caught  the  flame,  and  the  Janizaries  were 
ripe  for  a  war  with  Russia. 

The  vizier  assembled  an  army  of  two  hundred  thousand 
men,  imprisoned  the  Russian  ambassador  in  the  seven  towers, 
(which  ;s  the  Turkish  method  of  declaring  war,)  and  prepared 
to  enter  the  dominions  of  the  Czar.  Peter,  upon  the  first  intel- 
ligence, withdrew  his  troops  from  Poland,  and  the  provinces  of 
the  west,  and  prepared  for  the  conflict. — The  vizier  assembled 
his  army,  according  to  custom,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Adrian- 
f>p!e,  and  in  three  days  after  the  first  review,  took  the  field,  and 
commenced  operations. 

Peter  had  alieady  taken  the  field  ;  on  his  way  to  the  theatre 
of  action,  he  entered  Moldavia,  received  the  submission  of  this 
Turkish  province*,  and  the  governor,  prince  Cantemir,  became 
his  allv  in  the  war.  This  inflamed  the  confidence  of  Peter  ; 
he  advanced  into  the  heart  of  the  province,  upon  the  river 
Prnth,  near  to  the  capital.  The  vizier  advanced  to  meet  him, 
with  an  army  of  250,000;  crossed  the  Pruth,  and  invested 
Peter  in  his  camp. 

Thus  caucht  in  the  toils,  Peter  saw  himself  involved  in  the 
same  error  of  the  king  of  Sweden  at  Pultowa,  and  that  the  fate 
of  his  army  must  depend  upon  the  fate  of  an  action,  upon  the 
most  unfavourable  terms. 


PEACE.  301 

At  this  critical  moment,  count  Poniatowski  (who  accompa- 
nied the  vizier)  sent  an  express  to  the  king  of  Sweden  at  Ben- 
der :  Charles  rode  post  night_and  day,  to  witness  the  fall  of  his 
rival.  Peter  attempted  to  withdraw  in  the  night,  but  the  Turk 
discovered  the  movement,  fell  upon  his  rear,  and  threw  his  ar- 
my into  confusion :  they  rallied,  and  made  a  firm  stand  againgt 
two  successive  attacks.  The  vizier  then  changed  his  opera- 
tions, and  invested  the  Czar  in  his  camp  ;  this  reduced  him  to 
the  alternative  of  starving  or  fighting,  under  such  disparity  of 
numbers,  with  a  victorious  enemy. 

Peter  retired  to  his  tent  in  despair,  resolved  to  try  the  dread- 
ful experiment  of  forcing  his  way  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet, 
with  30,000  men,  through  an  army  of  250,000,  flushed  with 
their  recent  successes — and  forbade  any  one  to  approach  him. 

In  this  critical  moment  of  distress,  Catharine,  whom  from 
a  country  girl,  he  had  made  empress,  ventured  to  repair  to 
his  tent ;  she  flung  herself  at  his  feet,  and  entreated  him  to 
permit  her  in  his  name,  to  offer  proposals  of  peace  to  the 
grand  vizier;  Peter  consented:  she  presented  him  a  letter, 
he  signed  it;  she  selected  an  officer  on  whom  she  could  de- 
pend, and  despatched  the  letter,  with  a  present,  according  to 
custom,  and  received  for  answer  from  the  vizier :  "  Let  the 
Czar  send  me  his  prime  minister,  and  I  shall  then  consider 
what  is  to  be  done." 

The  chancellor  of  Peter  repaired  to  the  camp  of  the  vizier ; 
a  negociation  took  place,  accompanied  with  a  cessation  of 
arms,  for  six  hours,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded,  in  which 
Peter  stipulated — "to  restore  Azoph  to  the  Porte,  destroy 
the  harbor  of  Sangerou,  and  demolish  his  forts  on  the  Palus 
Mosotis,  withdraw  his  troops  from  Poland,  give  no  further  dis- 
turbance to  the  Cossacs,  and  permit  the  king  of  Sweden  to  re- 
turn to  his  own  dominions." 

.At  the  eventful  moment,  when  the  treaty  was  signed,  and 
Peter  was  enjoying  the  fulness  of  plenty  in  his  camp,  pro- 
tected by  a  peace,  arrived  Charles  XII.  Stung  with  chagrin, 
mortification  and  disappointment,  at  the  folly  of  the  vizier, 
the  escape  of  his  enemy,  the  ruin  of  all  his  efforts,  and  the 
disappointment  of  his  high  expectations,  he  flevr  to  the  tent 
of  the  vizie^  reproached  him  keenly  for  the  treaty  he  had 
made  ;  threw  himself  on  to  his  sopha,  and  with  an  eye  of  in- 
dignant scorn,  thrust  out  his  leg,  entangled  his  spur  in  his 
robe,  purposely  tore  it ;  rose  with  the  most  sullen  silence,  and 

26 


#02  BATTLE    OF   BENDER. 

returned  to  Bender.  The  treaty  was  received  at  Constantino- 
ple with  applause,  and  public  rejoicings,  yet  Charles  found 
means  to  be  revenged  on  the  vizier,  and  he  was  disgraced. 

This  affair  did  not  rest  here.  Charles  was  not  so  fortunate 
in  the  next  vizier;  his  supplies,  of  500  crowns  per  day,  were 
withdrawn,  together  with  the  rich  supplies  of  his  table.  The 
sultan  became  deaf  to  all  further  thoughts  of  war  with  Russia, 
and  determined  to  send  out  of  his  dominions,  this  intriguing, 
fugitive  king. 

The  sultan  wrote  Charles  to  this  effect  with  his  own  hand  : 
and  after  styling  him  "  Most  powerful  among  the  kings  who 
worship  Jesus,  brilliant  in  majesty,  a  lover  of  glory  and  hon- 
or," he  positively  assured  him,  that  he  had  laid  aside  all  fur- 
ther views  of  war  with  the  Czar,  and  pressed  him  to  return  to 
his  own  dominions. 

Charles  was  not  yet  ready  to  go  :  he  did  not  comply — but 
continued  his  intrigues.  The  sultan  sent  to  Charles  to  pre- 
pare immediately  for  his  departure;  with  1200  purses,  under 
the  care  of  the  bashaw  of  Bender,  to  provide  for  his  journey. 
Charles  deceived  the  Bashaw,  got  the  money,  but  still  refused 
to  go:  this  occasioned  the  bashaw  much  trouble  and  address  to 
save  his  head. 

The  sultan  assembled  his  divan,  in  which  it  was  advised  to 
send  away  the  king  of  Sweden  by  force.  The  bashaw  of 
Bender  communicated  this  order  to  the  king  of  Sweden: 
Charles  replied,  "  Obey  your  master,  if  you  dare,  and  leave 
my  presence  immediately.  '  The  Bashaw  obeyed,  and  pre- 
pared to  execute  the  sultan's  orders  :  Charles  prepared  to  re- 
sist, and  the  bashaw  besieged  him  in  hij  little  camp,  diew  up 
his  army  of  Turks  and  Cossacks,  opened  his  fire  from  his  ar- 
tillery, and  advanced  to  the  charge  j  the  camp  was  carried,  and 
300  Swedes  made  prisoners. 

Charles  being  on  horseback,  dismounted,  and  took  to  his 
house  :  here,  amidst  his  general  officers  and  domestics,  he 
made  a  stand  with  musketry,  against  the  assault  of  the  whole 
Turkish  force.  ,By  a  spirited  fire  from  the  windows,  they 
killed  about  200  Turks.  The  Turks  fired  the  house ;  and 
when  the  roof  fell  in,  Charles,  by  the  advice  of  one  of  his 
attendants,  rushed  out  of  the  flames,  at  the  head  of  his  little 
band,  and  with  the  sword  attempted  to  cut  his  way  through 
the  Turks,  to  the  Chancery  house,  and  there  make  a  stand. 
Pressed  by  the  Turks,  he  tripped  with  his  spurs,  and  fell ;  the 
Janizaries  seized  him  and  bore  him  away.  The  bashaw  re- 


CHARLES    XII.    RETUR.NS  TO    SWEDEN.  303 

ceived  him  in  his  own  house,  guarded  him  close  ;  but  treated 
him  like  a  king.  The  next  day  hc»  sent  him  to  Demirtash, 
near  to  Adrianople :  here  he  learnt  that  king  Stanislaus  was 
a  prisoner  amongst  the  Turks  :  here  he  renewed  his  intrigues, 
and  complained  to  the  sultan  of  the  unprecedented  seventy  of 
his  treatment.  The  sultan  covered  his  own  character,  by  a 
general  sacrifice  of  his  ministers  5  but  Charles  remained  a  pris- 
oner, and  to  avoid  being  sent  away  by  force,  took  to  his  bed; 
and  lay  ten  months,  served  alone  by  his  principal  officers. 

During  these  scenes,  the  generals  of  Charles  were  perform- 
ing feats  of  valor,  in  defending  his  provinces  in  German}7,  from 
the  ravages  of  the  Danes  and  Saxons.  The  allies  bombarded 
the  city  of  Stade,  in  the  duchy  of  Bremen,  and  reduced  it  to 
ashes.  Steenbock,  the  Swedish  general,  defeated  the  allies  in  a 
desperate  battle,  and  revenged  the  barbarity  of  Stade,  by  burn- 
ing Altena,  a  city  of  the  king  of  Denmark.  Fired  with  the 
spirit  of  his  master,  Steenbock  did  valiantly;  but  a  junction  of 
the  Russians,  with  the  Danes  and  Saxons,  drove  him  into  Hoi- 
stein,  besieged  him  in  Toningen,  and  made  him  a  prisdher,  with 
all  his  army. 

The  baron  De  Gortx  then  undertook  to  manage  by  intrigue 
the  affairs  of  the  king  of  Sweden,  and  effect  by  negotiation, 
what  Steenbock  had  failed  to  accomplish  by  arms. 


CHAP.  V. 

Charles  XII.  returns  to  Sweden  ;  defence  of  Stralsund  ;  na- 
val operations  upon  the  Baltic  ;  Peter  I.  enters  Petersburg 
in  triumph  ;  fall  <f  Stralsund. 

DESPAIRING  of  success  from  his  intrigues,  tired  of  this  inac- 
tive life,  and  alarmed  for  the  fate  of  Sweden,  Charles  roused 
from  his  confinement  and  prepared  to  depart.  The  Vizier 
furnished  him  with  an  escort  and  supplies  according  to  his 
wishes,  and  he  set  out  by  the  way  of  Germany  with  sixty  load- 
ed waggons,  and  an  escort  of  three  hundred  horse  to  return  to 
Sweden.  On  the  confines  of  Transylvania  he  dismissed  his 
escort,  took  leave  of  his  friends,  and  attended  by  one  officer, 
rode  post  night  and  day  through  Germany,  and  arrived  at 
Stralsund  November  21,  1714.  Here  he  passed  the  winter, 
making  general  arrangements  to  prosecute  the  war  with  vigrfr 
in  the  spring. 


304  NAVAL    VICTORY   AND    TRIUMPH   6F   PETER   I. 

The  war  which  the  Spanish  succession  had  kindled  in  the 
sout  of  Europe,  ancTwhich  had  raged  with  so  much  violence 
in  Flanders,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  and  upon  the  ocean,  was 
now  hushed  to  peace  by  the  treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Rastadt, 
March,  1713. 

The  flame  of  \var,  which  was  kindled  under  the  northern 
league,  against  the  young  king  of  Sweden,  had  never  been 
extinguished  ;  the  parties  were  now  exerting  all  their  efforts 
to  accomplish  their  grand  purpose,  and  divide  up  Sweden. 
Prussia,  Denmark  and  Saxony  were  ready  to  invest  Stralsund 
at  the  opening  of  the  spring.  Peter,  with  a  fleet  of  thirty  ships 
of  war,  the  fruits  of  his  own  persevering  geuius,  and  in  part 
the  labors  of  kis  own  hands,  rode  triumphant  upon  the 
Baltic. 

He  became,  from  actual  experience,  the  best  carpenter,  ad- 
miral and  pilot  of  the  north  ;  this  he  acquired  by  the  successive 
grades  of  merit,  from  the  lowest  service  up  to  the  highest ;  he 
became  admiral,  as  he  became  master-builder  in  his  dock-yards, 
and  general  in  his  armies. 

Peter,  having  completed  the  reduction  of  Finland,  put  to 
sea  with  a  fleet  of  thirty  sail  of  the  line,  eighty  gallies,  and 
forty  half-gallies,  with  twenty-thousand  land  forces,  all  from 
his  new  port  of  Cronslot,  near  to  Petersburg,  to  make  a  de- 
scent upon  the  Island  of  Aland,  on  the  coast  of  Sweden,  near 
to  Stockholm. 

He  created  Apraxin  admiral  of  this  fleet,  and  served  as  vice- 
admiral  himself.  On  the  16th  of  July,  1714,  he  fell  in  with 
the  Swedish  fleet,  commanded  by  vice-admiral  Erinchild — 
an  action  commenced  which  lasted  three  hours.  The  Czar 
attacked  the  Swedish  vice-admiral,  and  took  him  after  a  se- 
vere engagement;  sixteen  thousand  troops  were  landed  on 
the  Island,  at  the  same  time ;  they  took  and  carried  on  board 
the  fleet  all  the  troops  found  upon  the  Island,  and  Peter  re- 
turned to  Cronslot  in  triumph,  with  the  vice-admiral's  ship  : 
three  others,  one  frigate,  and  six  gallies,  the  trophies  of  his 
victory.  Having  assembled  his  fleet,  he  set  sail  and  entered 
the  harbor  of  Petersburg,  amidst  the  triple  discharge  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon. 

Here  commenced  a  new  scene.  This  Petersburg,  where 
in  the  year  1700,  not  one  solitary  house  was  to  be  seen,  where 
not  even  a  fishing  boat  was  to  be  found,  and  when  the  great 
founder  of  it  was  a  common  carpenter  in  the  dock-yards  of 
Holland,  now  displayed  the  magnificence  of  thirty-four  thou- 
sand five  hundred  houses,  in  the  most  superb  style  of  modern 


THE  CONTRAST.  oOj 

architecture.  That  port  which  Peter  had  formed  with  indefat- 
igable efforts  and  labor  now  witnessed  the  triumphant  entry  of 
a  victorious  fleet  of  thirty  sail  of  the  line,  with  the  prizes  of  the 
Swedish  fleet :  and  to  crown  the  whole,  the  Czar  repeated  at  Pe- 
tersburg the  splendor  of  the  triumphs  of  Moscow  ;  he  made  his 
triumphant  entry  into  Petersburg,  and  amidst  the  display  of  the 
trophies  of  his  victory,  the  Swedish  vice-admiral  graced  his  train. 
The  conquests  of  Peter,  were  devoted  to  the  benefit  of  Pe- 
tersburg :  all  that  was  valuable  in  manufactures,  and  the  arts 
and  sciences,  were  destined  to  enrich  and  improve  his  new- 
capital.  Triumphant  over  Sweden,  by  land  and  sea,  he  now 
became  the  arbiter  of  Poland,  and  held  the  balance  between 
Augustus  and  his  nobles.  Charles  XII.  all  this  time,  was 
intriguing  in  Turkey,  fighting  the  bashaw  of  Bender,  or  lying  a 
bed  ;  and  having  rode  post  fifteen  days  and  nights,  was  now 
prepared  to  defend  Stralsund  against  the  allies.  His  country 
in  his  absence,  had  been  ravaged  and  despoiled  of  nearly  all  his 
foreign  possessions  5  her  veteran  troops,  once  so  formidable,  had 
fallen,  wasted  and  perished  :  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
were  prisoners  in  Russia,  and  as  many  more,  the  Tartars  had 
sold  to  the  Turks;  and  the  enterprise  and  ardor  of  Sweden,  had 
wasted  with  her  commerce,  her  money,  her  credit,  aud  her 
troops. 

The  scales  were  turned.  Peter  now  stood  on  that  high 
ground,  which  Charles  had  abandon  d  ;  and  Charles,  in  his 
turn  had  to  begin  anew.  Charles,  having  arranged  ihe  de- 
fence of  his  kingdom,  prepared  to  defend  Stralsund.  His  ar- 
rival had  rekindled  the  ancient  spirit  of  Sweden  ;  man  vied 
with  man,  in  the  general  preparations.  The  Prussian  arid 
Danish  fleet,  sunk  and  destroyed  five  Swedish  ships  before 
Stralsund. 

Peter  rode  triumphant  before  Stockholm,  with  twenty 
ships  of  the  line,  one  hundred  and  fifty  transports,  and  30,000 
men  threatening  a  descent ;  he  filled  all  Sweden  with  alarm. 
At  the  same  time,  he  overran  and  subdued  all  Finland,  east 
of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  hold  possession.  The  king  of 
Prussia  seized  on  the  island  of  U.sedom,  and  the  city  of  Stetin, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder,  and  dispossessed  the  Swedes. 

During  these  operations,  Charles  conducted  the  defence 
of  Stralsund,  with  a  garrison  of  9,000  men  •  besieged  by  the 
&.in;_'>  of  Denmark  and  Prussia,  at  the  head  of  "6.000  men. 
Stralsund  was  a  place  of  great  strength  and  importance,  in- 

26* 


306  BATTLE    OF   RAGEN. 

accessible  by  land,  and  considered  so  by  water  ;  defended 
by  Charles  XII.  who  was  confident  it  could  not  be  taken. 

An  accident  discovered  to  the  besiegers,  that  the  fortress 
which  protected  the  city,  was  accessible  on  the  side  of  the 
sea,  and  that  the  Baltic  receded  under  a  strong  west  wind, 
and  left  but  three  feet  of  water".  The  besiegers  availed  them- 
selves of  this  ;  the  same  night  a  party  of  1800  men  plunged 
into  the  water  ;  at  the  same  time,  another  party  of  2,000, 
commenced  an  attack  by  land.  The  troops  in  the  water  pene- 
trated to  the  walls,  entered  unobserved,  and  carried  the  for- 
tress with  a  cruel  slaughter  :  part  of  the  garrison  fled  to  the 
town  5  the  conquerors  pursued,  and  entered,  with  the  fugitives ; 
but  their  course  was  arrested  at  the  drawbridge — they  were  all 
taken,  and  the  town  saved. 

The  besiegers  attempted  to  make  a  lodgment  upon  the 
island  of  Rugen,  opposite  to  the  harbor  of  Stralsund.  This 
place  Charles  knew  the  importance  of  securing  :  to  this  end, 
he  repaired  to  Rugen,  with  a  few  of  his  principal  officers,  to 
encourage  and  support  the  little  garrison  of  2,000  men,  who 
were  stationed  for  its  defence.  The  same  night  the  besieg- 
ers sailed  to  the  islands,  with  a  fleet  of  transports,  carrying 
15,000  men,  under  the  command  of  the  prince  of  Anhalt. — 
The  cautious  prince,  intrenched  his  camp,  in  the  dead  of 
night,  with  a  deep  ditch  and  chevaux-de-frise,  with  as  much 
caution  and  strength,  as  if  he  knew  the  king  of  Sweden  had 
been  there  with  his  army.  Charles,  apprised  of  the  landing, 
but  ignorant  of  the  force  of  the  enemy,  drew  out  his  little 
band,  marched  three  leagues  in  dead  of  night,  and  at  two  in 
the  morning,  his  soldiers  began  to  pull  up  the  chevau-de- 
frise.  This  gave  the  alarm  ;  and  the  prince  and  his  parly 
stood  to  their  arms.  Charles  advanced,  and  discovered  the 
ditch  ;  struck  with  surprise,  he  leapt  into  it,  and  his  soldiers 
followed  his  example :  by  the  greatest  personal  exertions, 
they  penetrated  the  camp — the  action  commenced — the  im- 
petuosity of  the  Swedes  bore  down  all  before  them  ;  but  the 
weight  of  numbers  soon  checked  the  onset.  The  enemy 
rallied,  and  chai'ged  in  their  turn  ;  the  conflict  was  desperate 
— the  Swedes  retired — Charles  fled,  ignorant  of  his  pursuer — 
the  prince  pursued,  alike  ignorant  of  those  who  fled  before 
him  :  Charles  rallied  his  troops  to  the  charge — the  carnage 
was  terrible — the  king  witnessed  the  fall  of  his  favorites,  Gro- 
thusen,  and  general  Dardoff,  by  his  side.  Deering,  who  rode 
post  with  him  through  Germany,  fifteen  days,,  lay  dead  at  his 


FALL    OP    STRALSUND.  307 

feet,  Charles  was  then  announced  by  name,  by  a  Danish 
lieutenant,  who  knew  him,  and  had  seized  him  by  the  hair, 
and  with  uplifted  sword,  was  ready  to  sever  his  devoted  head. 
Charles  drew  a  pistol  from  his  sash,  and  shot  the  lieutenant 
dead  in  the  act.  The  name  of  the  king,  thickened  the  cloud 
about  him,  and  he  received  a  ball  under  the  left  breast.  At 
this  critical  moment,  Poniatowski,  who  had  saved  the  king  at 
Bender — appeared  with  his  horse,  penetrated  to  the  king,  and 
set  him  thereon  ;  the  Swedes  retired  to  their  fortress,  and  se- 
cured the  king.  The  next  day  he  abandoned  his  brave  Swedes 
to  their  fate,  returned  to  Stralsund,  and  his  little  band  surren- 
dered prisoners  of  war. 

The  brave  count  Villelongue,  who  jeoparded  his  life  for  the 
king,  at  Adrianople,  was  taken  at  the  head  of  that  French 
regiment,  which  joined  the  king  of  Sweden  in  Poland,  when 
taken  from  Augustus ;  and  now  passed  into  the  service  of  the 
prince  of  Anhalt.  Shut  up  in  Stralsund,  Charles  felt  the  se- 
verities of  a  bombardment — and  half  the  town  was  in  ruins  : 
the  citizens  were  all  become  soldiers,  and  rallied  with  cheer- 
fulness around  their  king.  Charles  continued  to  repel  the  at- 
tacks and  assaults  of  the  enemy,  until  all  hopes  of  resistance 
failed  ;  he  then  yielded  to  the  voice  of  his  friends— to  abandon 
a  town  whose  defence  had  become  desperate,  and  provide  for 
his  safety.  This  had  now  become  as  difficult  and  dangerous,  as 
the  defence  of  Stralsund. 

It  was  now  the  20th  of  December,  1715  ;  the  frost  had  set 
in,  and  the  harbor  was  frozen  ;  but  Charles  made  the  attempt, 
in  a  small  fishing  boat,  accompanied  by  only  ten  persons.  They 
succeeded  in  breaking  the  ice  unmolested  by  the  enemy's  ship- 
ping 5  passed  the  fort  with  only  the  loss  of  two  men,  from  an 
incessant  fire  ;  landed  at  Scania,  and  from  thence  Charles  pas- 
sed to  Carlscroon,  (the  port  from  whence  he  embarked  on  his 
expedition  against  Copenhagen,  in  the  year  1700,  to  give  law 
to  the  north.)  The  next  day  Stralsund  surrendered.  Charles 
rode  post  to  visit  his  sister,  by  appointment,  on  the  banks  of 
lake  Weten,  and  on  the  next  day  returned  to  Carlescroon,  and 
passed  the  winter.  • 


CHAP.  VI. 

Invasion  of  Norway — Baron  de  Gortz — death  of  Charles  XII, 


308  BARON    DE    GORTZ. 

peace — characters  of  Peter  I.  and  Charles  XII. — Immediate 
causes  of  the  French  Revolution. 

CHARLES  had  inspired  all  Sweden  with  the  same  zeal  which 
he  had  kindled  in  Stralsund,  and  the  readiness  with  which  they 
rallied  round  his  standard,  and  opened  their  treasures  to  supply 
his  armies,  gave  him  such  confidence,  that  instead  of  defending 
Sweden  against  a  concerted  attack  from  the  Danes  and  Rus- 
sians j  in  the  month  of  March,  he  assembled  an  army  ;  braved 
the  severity  of  this  early  season,  and  the  greater  severity  of 
roads  almost  impassable  ;  passed  into  Norway,  and  laid  siege 
to  Christiana. 

This  bold  stroke  gave  some  eclat  to  his  arms,  and  excited  a 
general  attention  ;  but  the  approach  of  the  Danish  fleet,  and 
the  want  of  supplies  obliged  him  to  return  into  Sweden.  At 
this  time,  the  intrigues  of  his  prime  minister,  the  baron  de 
Gortz,  began  to  take  some  effect.  De  Gortz  had  sown  the 
seeds  of  jealousy  between  Peter,  and  the  states  of  Germany ; 
and  was  now  diffusing  the  same  seeds  between  Peter,  and  the 
king  of  Denmark.  He  carried  his  intrigues  into  all  the  courts 
of  Europe  ;  favored  the  pretender  in  France,  and  flattered 
Charles  XII.  with  the  prospect  of  invading  Scotland  5  and  in 
short,  the  operations  of  war  were  changed  into  finesse  and  in- 
trigue. 

Peter  at  this  time  again  visited  Holland  and  France,  to 
perfect  that  education  which  he  had  begun  fifteen  yaars  be- 
fore. Here  he  had  an  interview  with  the  baron  de  Gortz, 
who  obtained  great  influence,  by  attaching  Peter  to  that  mys- 
terious system  of  politics,  he  was  so  insiduously  sowing 
throughout  Europe,  and  induced  him  to  listen  to  terms  of 
peace  with  Charles  ;  flattered  him  that  the  arms  of  Russia  and 
Sweden  united,  might  make  an  easy  conquest  of  Denmark,  es- 
tablish the  independent  sovereignty  of  the  Baltic,  and  a  free 
intercourse  with  the  ocean  ;  and  hinted,  that  such  a  peace 
would  guarantee  to  him  the  provinces  conquered  from  Swe- 
den, which  had  been  so  much  the  object  of  Peter.  These 
hints,  with  such  others  as  Peter  foresaw  were  connected  with 
them,  added  to  the  low  state  of  his  funds,  led  him  to  listen 
seriously  to  de  Gortz. 

Charles  had  now  recovered  some  strength,  he  again  enter- 
ed Norway,  December,  1718,  and  laid  siege  to  Frederickshall. 
He  opened  the  trenches  in  the  midst  of  frost  and  snow,  and 
assisted  in  person  in  the  most  arduous  operations.  Here,  in 


T>EATH   OF    CHARLES    XII.  S09 

directing  the  approaches  by  star-light,  he  was  killed  instantly^ 
by  a  grape-shot,  which  passed  through  his  head.  Charles  seiz- 
ed the  hilt  of  his  sword,  and  died  without  a  groan. 

This  momentous  event  put  a  new  face  upon  Europe,  and 
was  followed  by  a  general  cessation  of  arms.  The  prince  of 
Hesse,  brother-in-law  to  Charles,  led  baek  the  Swedes  from 
Norway  into  their  own  country,  unmolested  by  the  Danes. 
The  senate  of  Sweden  ordered  the  baron  de  Gortz  to  be  ar- 
rested, tried,  condemned,  and  executed  as  a  mal-adviser  to  the 
king,  and  an  enemy  to  Sweden.  They  next  elected  Ulrica 
Elenora  (sister  of  Charles  XII.)  their  queen,  and  rendered  the 
crown  of  Sweden  elective  :  she  conferred  it  upon  her  husband, 
the  prince  of  Hesse.  Sweden  soon  settled  a  peace  with  all  her 
enemies  but  Peter :  he  continued  the  war,  and  ravaged  the 
coast  of  Sweden,  until  the  peace  of  1721,  which  guaranteed  to 
the  Czar  the  provinces  of  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Ingria,  a  part  of 
Carelia,  and  of  Finland.  The  Czar  then  took  the  title  of  em- 
peror, which  was  acknowledged  by  all  Europe.  The  charac- 
ters of  these  two  heroes  of  the  north,  are  here  drawn  at  large  ; 
never  were  two  characters  so  uniformly  great,  and  so  uniform- 
ly different.  The  effects  and  consequences  which  resulted,  are 
the  best  comment  it  is  in  the  power  of  man  to  make,  or  language 
to  express;  in  the  effects  are  displayed  the  true  contrast  of 
their  characters. 

We  have  witnessed  how  ambition  without  judgment,  has 
humbled  the  first  nation  of  the  north  ;  and  how  ambition  united 
with  judgment,  has  tamed  a  wilderness  of  barbarians  into  a  na- 
tion of  soldiers  ;  has  created  ports,  cities,  fleets  and  commerce, 
in  the  midst  of  almost  impenetrable  forests,  and  raised  their 
august  author  to  the  high  station  of  arbiter  of  the  north. 

Three  objects  in  particular  are  designed  in  this  minute  nar- 
rative of  the  reigns  cf  Charles  and  Peter  :  the  first,  to  shew  the 
history  of  the  two  nations,  in  connection  with  the  other  nations 
of  Europe  ;  second,  the  rise,  progress  and  improvements  of  the 
Russian  nation  ;  and  third,  the  effects  of  this,  in  controlling  the 
French  revolution. 

The  north,  after  the  peace  that  followed  the  death  of  Charles 
XII.  enjoyed  an  uninterrupted  repose  down  to  the  French 
revolution,  excepting  such  connection  as  they  had  with  the 
great  wars  of  the  south,  which  we  have  noticed  in  the  second 
part;  together  with  a  short,  but  successful  war,  between 
Russia  and  the  Turks,  from  1736  to  1738.  We  also  noticed 
in  detail,  the  efforts  of  Charles  VIII,  Lewis  XII.  Francis  L 


310        CAUSES  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

Henry  IV.  and  Lewis  XIV.  kings  of  France,  to  recover  the 
iron  crown  of  Charlemagne,  and  the  empire  of  the  west. — 
We  noticed  also  the  feuds  which  sprang  up  in  France  in  the 
reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  between  the  Jansenists  and  Jesuits  ;  be- 
tween the  king  and  the  parliament ;  and  the  general  excite- 
ment of  the  nation,  occasioned  by  the  pope's  bull  Unigeni- 
tus  ;  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  and  the  suspension  of  the 
parliaments  by  Lewis  XV. ;  and  alluded  briefly  to  the  rise  of 
infidel  philosophy.  We  will  now  pursue  the  great  object  of 
this  third  part,  and  illustrate  the  origin,  causes,  effects,  and  op- 
erations of  the  French  revolution. 

The  labors  of  Luther,  and  the  light  of  the  reformation,  had 
disclosed  the  mysteries  of  iniquity,  and  shewn  to  a  certain 
portion  of  Europe,  the  fallacy  and  corruption  of  auricular 
confession,  the  sale  of  indulgences,  pardon  and  remission  of 
sins,  the  absurdity  of  purgatory,  and  papal  supremacy.  The 
expansion  given  to  the  mind  by  the  arts  and  sciences,  led  the 
philosophers  of  France,  and  of  Europe,  to  discover  the  same 
mystery  of  iniquity  through  another  channel ;  and  in  their  turn, 
to  set  at  defiance  the  corruptions  of  popery,  and  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope.  The  bull  I  nigenitus,  kindled  the  fire  that  rallied 
the  parties  to  the  contest.  The  power  of  the  kings- of  France, 
had  been  from  the  time  of  ClovLs,  Pepin,  and  Charlemagne,  in- 
separably interwoven  with  the  supremacy  of  the  pope:  of 
course,  Lewis  XIV.  supported  the  bull ;  the  parliaments,  the 
body  of  the  nation,  together  with  many  of  the  higher,  as  svell  as 
the  lower  orders  of  the  clergy,  opposed  the  bull — and  the  na- 
tion was  divided  into  two  great  parties  ;  the  pope  and  the  king 
on  one  side,  and  the  parliaments  and  the  people  upon  the  oth- 
er :  but  the  death  of  Lewis  gave  a  check  to  the  quarrel.  The 
licentiousness  which  the  duke  of  Orleans  introduced  at  court, 
and  diffused  through  the  nation,  diverted  the  quarrel,  until  Lew- 
is XV.  came  to  the  throne.  The  arbitrary  spirit  of  Lewis,  led 
him  to  espouse  the  cause  of  the  pobe,  and  the  Jesuits:  parlia- 
ments as  warmly  espoused  the  cause  o,f  the  people.  Arbi- 
trary power  united  in  the  pope  a&d  king,  together  with  the  ab- 
surd superstitions  of  the  church  of  Rome,  became  the  subjects 
of  dispute. 

Here,  as  in  all  such  controversies,  was  displayed  the  ex- 
tremes of  the  passions  ;  liberty  was  arrayed  against  tyranny, 
licentiousness  against  superstition,  and  science  and  philoso- 
phy, against  ignorance  and  corruption :  the  conflict  was  vio- 
lent;  Lewis  pushed  his  powers  to  the  extreme  \  the  parlia- 


REVOLUTION    COMMENCED.  311 

nients  were  firm  ;  Lewis  dissolved  the  parliaments;  their  spir- 
it was  unbroken  ;  the  people  clamored  ;  one  Francis  Damien, 
(a  fanatic)  stabbed  the  king;  this  brought  him  to  his  senses: 
he  recovered  of  the  wound,  and  restored  the  parliaments.  They 
now  triumphed  in  their  turn;  they  demanded  that  the  Jesuits, 
who  had  caused  the  quarrel,  should  be  suppressed  :  Lewis  com- 
plied, abolished  their  order,  gave  them  up  to  civil  prosecutions, 
and  banished  them  from  France.  The  corruptions  of  their  in- 
stitute were  discovered,  and  exposed  to  the  world  ;  their  colleges 
\vere  seized  ;  their  estates  confiscated ;  and  they  became  the 
reproach  of  the  world. 

Elated  with  this  great  victory,  the  parliaments  attempted 
to  limit  and  humble  the  crown.  They  not  only  refused  to 
register  certain  obnoxious  edicts  of  tl*e  king :  but  commenc- 
ed prosecutions  against  such  authorities  as  dared  to  oppose 
them :  here  they  were  at  issue  again,  and  the  contest  con- 
tinued. 


CHAP.  VII. 

Jansenists  and Jesuits  ;  assembly  of  the  States-General ;  Rev- 
olution opened ;  Paris  becomes  one  great  mob  :  the  king  a 
cypher  ;  flight  of  the  king  ;  convention  formed  $  neio  Con- 
stitution. 

IN  the  midst  of  the  disputes  in  France  about  liberty  and 
prerogative,  died  Lewis  XV.  and  was  succeeded  by  Lewis 
XVI.  1774.  The  great  parties  which  sprain?  up  in  the  reisjn 
of  Lewis  XIV.  and  distracted  the  m»n  of  Lewis  XV.  still 
raged  in  France.  The  dispute  of  the  Jansenists  and  Jesuits 
about  free  grace,  free  will,  &c.  had  called  forth  the  pens  of 
the  most  learned  religious  writers — the  cause  of  liberty,  against 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  called  forth  also  the  pens  of  the 
learned  of  all  classes,  excited  a  general  attention  and  inquiry 
through  the  nation  ;  and  all  descriptions  of  character  became 
party  in  the  quarrel. 

The  American  Revolution,  {rave  a  diversion  to  the  violence 
of  the  contest,  for  a  time;  when  mat  was  closed,  it  raged  with 
renewed  violence;  the  abolition  of  the  parliament  had  only  in- 
creased the  flame,  until  the  people,  impatient  of  all  further  re- 
straint, were  resolved  to  govern  themselves. 


312  REVOLUTION. 

They  accordingly  assembled  at  Versailles,  on  the  5th  of 
May,  1789,  a  general  deputatoin  from  all  the  sections  of 
France,  under  the  denomination  of  the  States-General,  and  as- 
sumed a  share  in  the  government ;  and  on  the  l6th  of  June, 
they  resolved  themselves  into  a  national  assembly.  Over- 
awed in  some  measure  by  the  Swiss  guards  of  the  crown, 
they  saw  the  necessity  of  a  military  force — they  resolved  that 
48,000  citizens  should  be  enrolled  as  national  guards,  and  in 
two  days  270,000  men  were  enrolled  in  the  city  of  Paris. 
These  were  without  arms ;  they  seized  on  all  the  depots  of 
arms  that  fell  in  their  way  ;  an  immense  mob  assaulted  the 
hospital  of  invalids,  took  30,000  muskets,  and  20  pieces  of  can- 
non ;  and  they  intercepted  all  the  couriers  of  the  court,  and 
disclosed  their  dispatches.  Flushed  with  these  successes,  the 
national  assembly  sent  a  deputation  to  the  king,  with  a  demand 
thnt  the  large  body  of  troops  posted  in  the  Champ  de  Mars. 
should  be  withdrawn — the  king  replied,  "  I  have  already  made 
known  to  you  the  measures  the  disorders  of  Paris  have  obliged 
me  to  adopt;  I  alone  have  the  right  to  judge  of  the  necessity, 
and  in  that  respect  can  make  no  change  ;"  the  troops  however 
withdrew  in  the  night. 

On  the  next  day,  June  14th,  the  people,  still  in  quest  of 
arms,  went  to  the  bastile,  and  sent  a  small  deputation  to  the 
governor,  who  were  admitted  ;  soon  a  firing  commenced  ia 
the  prison — this  enraged  the  populace  ;  they  flew  to  the  bas- 
tile, with  a  strong  military  force  ;  the  governor  fired  on  the 
mob  with  cannon  and  grape;  this  threw  the  populace  into  a 
rage — an  assault  commenced,  the  governor  displayed  the 
white  flag ;  a  parley  ensued,  and  a  second  deputation  was 
admitted,  and  a  second  firing  commenced  within  the  prison. 
This  becrrne  a  signal  of  general  assault ;  a  violent  conflict 
ensued,  the  prison  was  forced,  the  governor  was  massacred, 
the  principal  officers  were  executed,  and  their  heads  exhibit- 
ed on  poles  throughout  the  city  of  Paris.  The  prisoners 
were  set  at  liberty,  and  the  keys  carried  to  the  national  as- 
sembly ;  they  decreed  the  destruction  of  the  bastile.  This 
was  immediately  executed,  amidst  the  excesses  of  those  pas- 
sions which  fired  the  populace  to  take  v-ngeance  on  the  ob- 
jects of  their  hatred  and  fury.  This  violent  triumph  over  this 
detested  rod  of  despotism,  diffused  a  general  spirit  of  enthu- 
sias.n  through  the  nation,  and  may  be  called  the  tocsin  of  that 
liberty,  which  eventually  changed  the  political  character  of 
France.  The  king;  alarmed  at  this  outrage,  repaired  the 


DEVOLUTION.  313 

next  day  to  the  hall  of  the  assembly,  and  by  a  speech,  attempt- 
ed to  soothe  the  violence  of  the  proceedings. 

The  die  was  cast,  negociation  was  at  an  end,  violence  had 
commenced,  blood  had  been  spilt,  and  the  nation  was  in  arms. 
The  explosion  had  disclosed  the  passions  which  had  been 
ripening  for  nearly  half  a  century  ;  and  had  opened  the  field  of 
harvest  for  those  seeds,  which  were  sown  in  the  reign  of  Lewis 
XIV.  The  princes  of  the  blood,  with  many  of  the  nobles  of 
church  and  state,  alarmed  for  their  safety,  lied  into  voluntary 
banishment.  Fired  withi  resentment  at  this,  the  populace  took 
vnngeance  on  such  as  remained,  cut  off  their  heads,  and  expo- 
sed them  in  triumph  on  poles  through  the  streets — August  4. 

The  assembly  decreed  the  inviolability  of  the  king,  freedom 
of  opinion  in  matters  of  religion,  liberty  of  speech,  liberty  of  the 
press,  and  the  rights  of  man  ;  and  abolished  all  privileged  or- 
ders, August  15.  At  this  time  the  alarm  became  general;  the 
king  sent  the  plate  of  the  crown  to  the  mint ;  the  assembly  sent 
the  plate  of  the  church  to  the  mint ;  a  national  guard  of  60,000 
men,  conducted  the  king  from  Versailles  to  Paris,  and  lodged 
him  in  the  palace  of  the  Thuilleries  :  the  same  night  the  assem- 
bly sent  him  a  deputation  with  the  declaration  of  the  rights  of 
man,  which  the  king  accepted. 

Nov.  1. — The  assembly  decreed  the  abolition  of  all  letters  de 
cachet,  and  all  arbitrary  imprisonments,  all  distinction  of  orders, 
and  the  confiscation  of  ecclesiastical  estates ;  a  free  toleration 
in  religion,  with  an  equality  of  privileges.  These  violent  pro- 
ceedings in  such  rapid  succession,  alarmed  the  friends  of  the 
crown,  and  led  them  to  attempt  a  union  of  effort,  to  check  this 
mad  career,  rescue  the  king  and  government  from  this  licen- 
tiousness, and  restore  the  authority  of  the  crown.  This  effort 
existed  only  in  name,  and  served  only  to  inflame  the  populace. 
The  system  had  long  been  maturffJ,  and  every  means  was  reg- 
ularly seized  to  progress  the  plan.  A  government  was  now 
fixed  in  the  national  assembly  ;  a  military  force  was  formed, 
and  armed  ;  the  bastile  was  destroyed  by  violence,  without  op- 
position ;  the  king  was  no  better  than  a  prisoner,  or  cypher  in 
his  palace,  his  prerogative  was  set  at  defiance,  with  the  decree 
of  the  rights  of  man. 

That  clergy,  which  had  so  violently  assisted  the  crown  to  en- 
force the  bull  Unigenitus,  were  now  stripped  of  their  pow- 
er, by  the  act  of  free  toleration,  and  the  confiscation  of  their 
estates.  Money  was  now  wanting ;  this  it  would  not  do  to 

27 


314  HEVOLUTIOI*. 

supply  by  taxes  on  the  people  :  assignats,  or  paper  money 
was  issued,  and  the  Jews  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Avignon 
were  decreed  citizens  of  France,  January,  1790,  and  their  ex- 
tra taxes  abolished  ;  the  civic  oath  was  administered  to  the 
king,  and  the  whole  city  of  Paris;  all  religious  cloisters  were 
abolished  forever,  and  their  estates  confiscated ;  the  minister 
Neckar  sent  in  his  resignation  to  the  assembly  ;  they  decreed 
a  monument  to  be  erected  to  the  memory  of  J.  J.  Rosseau, 
and  that  his  widow  and  family  be  supported  at  the  public  ex- 
pense. These  were  the  outlines  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
assembly  this  year ;  the  violent  agitation  of  the  public  mind 
generally,  and  the  distractions  of  the  city  of  Paris  particularly, 
can  never  be  described. 

April,  1791. — The  king  attempted  to  go  with  his  family  to 
St.  Cloud,  to  pass  the  easier  holydays :  a  violent  tumult  en- 
sued ;  here,  for  the  first  time,  Lewis  realized  that  he  was  a 
prisoner  in  his  palace  :  here,  for  the  first  time,  the  marquis 
La  Fayette  began  to  realize,  that  it  was  easier  to  excite  the 
popular  tumult,  than  to  control  it ;  and  that  what  he  and  his 
friends  had  contemplated,  as  a  reform  in  the  government,  had 
become  a  revolutiou,  irresistible  and  uncontrolable. 

The  king  was  compelled  to  return  to  the  Thuilleries,  under 
a  strong  guard.  The  complaints  of  the  king,  to  the  assembly, 
produced  no  more  effect,  than  the  remonstrances  of  the  mar- 
quis La  Fayette  to  the  mob.  The  king  was  a  prisoner,  the 
government  subverted,  and  the  efforts  of  man,  could  not  control 
the  violence  of  the  tornado. 

The  minister  at  war  announced  to  the  assembly,  that  the 
emigrants  were  assembled  on  the  frontier,  to  invade  France; 
that  they  had  been  reviewed  by  the  prince  of  Conde,  that 
their  uniform  was  black,  faced  with  yellow,  nnd  their  motto — 
"  Conquer  or  die."  This  inflamed  the  assembly  and  the  na- 
tion like  a  shock  of  electricity,  they  decreed  the  ashes  of  Vol- 
taire worthy  the  Pantheon  ;  the  populace  assembled  in  the 
Palais  Royal  in  Paris,  and  burnt  the  pope  in  effigy  ;  the 
violence  of  the  new  principles  were  now  displayed,  Voltaire 
was  deified,  and  the  pope  consumed.  This  was  in  miniature 
the  triumph  of  the  old  praties,  the  fall  of  superstition,  and  the 
triumph  of  philosophy  ;  but  the  triumph  of  the  sword  of  Charle- 
magne was  yet  behind  the  curtain — this  was  in  the  hands  of  a 
set  of  men  who  had  not  yet  disclosed  it. 

The  king,  aware  of  the  eventful  crisis,  attempted  to  con- 
vey his  family  in  a  secret  flight  to  Montmedy,  a  strong  town 


REVOLUTION.  . •'•  \  u 

on  the  north  of  France  ;  he  was  recognized  on  his  va}r,  at  Va- 
rennes,  arrested  by  the  populace,  and  conducted  back  to  Pa* 
ris,  under  an  escort  of  30,000  men,  and  again  committed  to 
the  Thuilleries,  June  29.  Placards  were  posted  upon  the 
walls  of  Paris  :  "Whoever  shall  applaud  the  king,  shall  be 
soundly  cudgelled  :  whoever  shall  insult  the  king,  shall  be 
hanged."  The  general  alarm  was  great  ;  but  the  escort  was 
conducted  with  great  solemnity,  arid  the  national  assembly 
became  permanent.  They  sent  a  deputation  to  the  king,  to 
inquire  into  the  cause  of  his  departure  ;  and  the  king  assured 
them  it  was  not  his  intention  to  leave  the  kingdom,  but  only 
to  reside  at  Montmedy,  until  the  nation  became  tranquil,  and 
the  constitution  settled  ;  and  remonstrated  against  the  riotous 
abuse  the  queen  received  from  the  mob,  in  Paris,  and  ex- 
pressed his  anxiety  for  her  safety.  The  queen  replied,  that 
she  only  accompanied  her  family  and  husband  to  a  place  of 
more  safety.  The  ashes  of  Voltaire,  were,  according  to  the 
decree,  removed  to  St.  Genevieve,  July  17.  This  move- 
ment of  the  king,  had  kindled  anew  the  flames  of  the  revolu- 
tion.— Robespierre  appeared  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  at  the 
head  of  a  vast  multitude,  who  petitioned  for  the  king  to  be 
dethroned.  At  this  eventful  crisis,  the  famous  convention 
took  place,  between  the  emperor  Leopold,  and  the  king  of 
Prussia. 

August  1 . — The  minister  at  war  announced  that  the  emi- 
grants, to  the  amount  of  8,000,  were  assembled  upon  the 
Meuse  and  Moselle,  under  the  prince  of  Conde,  and  were  sup- 
ported by  another  body  of  10,000,  headed  by  the  two  broth- 
ers of  the  king.  The  spirit  of  liberty  was  now  sown  in  the 
island  of  St.  Domingo  :  the  colonial  assembly  decreed  the 
liberty  of  the  mul  ittoes  to  the  floor  of  their  assembly.  This 
produced  great  confusion,  and  became  the  cause  of  great 
contention.  In  this  state  of  things,  the  new  constitution  of 
France,  was  finished,  and  presented  to  the  king,  by  a  deputa- 
tion of  sixty  members,  September  14  ;  and  the  assembly  de- 
creed, that  the  constitution  be  solemnly  published  throughout 
France. 


CHAP.  VIII. 
Lewis  XVI.  signs  the  new  Constitution -Clubs  of  the 


316  NEW    CONSTITUTION. 

lans  and   Jacobins — Decrees   of  the  National  Assembly — 

Treaty  of  Vienna — Riots  in  Paris Coalition Duke  of 

Brunswick — Flight  of  the  King. 

THE  king  received  the  constitution,  and  repaired  imme- 
diately to  the  hall  of  the  National  Assembly  to  sign  it.  He 
closed  his  memorable  speech,  on  this  occasion,  with  these 
words  :  "I  come,  solemnly  to  consecrate  my  acceptation  of 
the  constitutional  code  ;  and  I  swear  to  be  faithful  to  the  na- 
tion and  the  laws,  and  to  employ  all  the  power  with  which  I 
am  entrusted,  to  maintain  the  constitution  decreed  by  the 
National  Assembly,  and  to  cause  the  laws  to  be  executed. 
May  this  great  and  memorable  epoch,  be  the  cause  of  re-es- 
tablishing peace  and  union,  and  become  the  basis  of  the  wel- 
fare of  the  people,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  empire." 

The  burst  of  applause  which  tilled  all  parties  upon  the  oc- 
casion, cannot  be  described.  A  grand  festival  was  given  in 
the  Champs  Elisses  ;  "  One  hundred  thousand  citizens  danc- 
ed upon  the  occasion  ;  and  at  the  distance  of  every  hundred 
yards,  was  constructed  a  highly  illuminated  orchestra,  where 
the  musicians  played  :  and  the  air  resounded,  every  half- 
hour,  with  the  discharge  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  pieces  of 
cannon,  placed  on  the  banks  of  the  Seine.  On  a  tree,  plant- 
ed on  the  oldscite  of  the  Bastile,  was  displayed  the  following 
inscription.  Here  is  the  epoch  of  Liberty.  We  dance  on  the 
ruins  of  Despotism.  The  Constitution  is  finished.  Long  live 
Patriotism."  The  constituent  assembly  closed  September  30. 

October  1. — The  legislative  assembly  was  organized  un- 
der the  new  constitution,  and  sat,  for  the  first  time.  The 
king  of  the  French,  despatched  letters  to  all  the  emigrant 
princes,  conjuring  them  to  return  to  France.  They  had  car- 
ried with  them  into  exile,  the  seeds  of  the  old  quarrel :  they 
were  not  cordial  to  this  new  order  of  things,  it  went  to  de- 
stroy all  their  power  ;  and  they  refused  to  return.  The 
count  De  Artois  declared,  that  they  had  taken  up  arms  to  re- 
store the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  and  its  ministers,  and  to 
give  the  king  his  liberty  and  authority.  The  assembly  pass- 
ed a  decree  to  compel  the  emigrants  to  return  ;  this  the  king 
refused  to  sanction.  The  flames  of  liberty  were  now  kin- 
dled in  St.  Domingo,  and  the  mulattoes  burnt  three  hundred 
houses.  We  come  now  to  the  eventful  period  which  disclos- 
es the  main-spring  which  set  the  vast  machine  in  motion,  and 


REVOLUTION.  317 

apeared  openly  to  regulate  and  control  all  its  movements  and 
operations. 

A  society  of  Moderates  styled  Feuillans,  was  formed,  and 
began  to  diffuse  their  influence  and  sentiments,  to  regulate  the 
government — this  society  breathed  the  opinions  of  reform,  not 
revolution,  in  government  ;  limited  monarchy,  not  a  republican 
system,  such  as  the  Marquis  La  Fayette  and  others  contempla^ 
ted.  This  club  called  into  view  thejacobin  club — this  originated 
in  an  assemblage  of  about  40  literary  gentlemen  in  the  lifetime 
of  Voltaire,  and  in  the  reign  of  Lewis  XV.  for  the  purpose  of 
diffusing  general  information  in  France,  and  to  counteract  the 
corrupt  and  despotic  power  of  popish  superstition,  and  through 
the  means  of  a  more  general  knowledge,  to  rouse  up  the  nation 
fro  a  sense  of  their  rights,  and  of  their  power,  and  through  the 
medium  of  these,  to  open  the  way  for  France  to  recover  all  her 
ancient  greatness. 

The  club  of  the  moderates  were  opposed  to  this,  and  the 
jacobins  were  then  forced  fr^m  their  concealment.  They  as- 
sembled regularly,  their  numbers  were  small,  but  their  names- 
had  great  weight  and  these  gave  strength,  and  added  numbers 
to  the  club  ;  it  soon  bore  down  and  destroyed  the  moderates. 
The  great  plan  of  this  club  was,  to  discuss  such  questions  as 
were  most  likely  to  claim  the  attention  of  the  national  assembly, 
and  through  this  medium,  influence  and  control  that  body.  To 
render  this  the  more  effectual,  a  regular  president,  secretary, 
&c.  were  chosen,  and  the  debates  conducted  with  the  greatest 
regularity.  Auditors  were  admitted  into  the  galleries,  who 
caught  the  spirit  of  the  club,  and  by  their  applause,  proclaimed 
it  through  the  nation — the  influence  of  this  club  became  great, 
bore  down  all  other  clubs,  and  gave  law  to  the  nation. 

At  this  eventful  crisis  appeared  Condorcet's  manifesto,  ad- 
dressed to  all  states  and  nations  :  the  national  assembly  decreed 
it  and  presented  it  to  the  king— two  sentences  of  this  will  be  a. 
sufficient  sample  of  the  whole  :  "  Peace,  which  imposture,  in- 
trigue, and  treason  have  banished,  will  never  cease  to  be  our 
first  wishes.  France  will  take  up  arms,  compelled  to  do  so,  for 
her  internal  peace  and  safety  ;  she  will  be  seen  to  lay  them 
down  with  joy,  the  moment  she  is  assured,  that  there  is  nothing 
to  fear  for  that  liberty,  for  that  equality,  which  is  now  the 
only  element  in  which  Frenchmen  can  live."  Condorcet 
was  a  jacobin,  and  here  disclosed  the  su  n  of  the  whole  matter, 
27  * 


318  DEVOLUTION. 

which  had  been  so  long  concealed,  and  in  concealment  wrought 
such  astonishing  effects. 

The  compact  for  a  military  republic  was  formed,  and  the 
Iking  was  like  Charles  I.  of  England,  only  a  cloak  or  tool,  for 
this  club  to  work  with.  January  1,  1792,  the  assembly  pas- 
set!  a  decree  against  the  emigrant  princes— the  king  of  Prus- 
sia publickly  declared,  "  that  Lewis  XVI.  having  accepted  the 
new  constitution  prevented  his  acting  in  his  defence."  The 
affairs  of  the  revolution  began  now  to  excite  a  general  alarm 
throughout  Europe—they  all  knew  what  France  once  was, 
and  what  she  had  not  ceased  in  her  efforts  to  become  again, 
viz.  the  empire  of  the  west—they  dreaded  a  military  republic  in 
the  heart  of  Europe,  armed  with  all  the  resources,  military  ex- 
perience, and  wild  enthusiasm  of  France  ;  they  prepared  to  do 
something,  and  at  the  same  time  knew  not  what  to  do — if 
they  lay  idle,  they  feared  the  union  and  strength  France  might 
gain,  in  ripening  her  plans — if  they  made  a  movement,  they 
feared  that  it  might  endanger  the  king,  and  drive  the  nation  to 
union  for  their  common  safety,  and  kindle  with  violence  the 
torch  of  war.  The  king  of  Bohemia  and  king  of  Prussia  enter- 
ed into  a  secret  treaty  to  prepare  for  the  worst.  February 
20th,  the  national  assembly  published,  through  their  ambassa- 
dors, to  all  the  courts  of  Europe,  "  France  renounces  all  arma- 
ments with  a  view  of  making  conquests,  and  will  never  employ 
her  forces  against  the  liberty  of  any  state."  The  secret  treaty 
of  Vienna  was  soon  known  to  France,  and  excited  alarm. 

Lewis  XVI.  to  secure  his  own  safety,  wrote  immediately  to 
the  emperor  :  "  I  demand  of  the  king  of  Bohemia,  an  entire 
renunciation  of  all  coalition  and  armament  against  France ; 
and  I  declare  to  him,  that  if  heroes  not  do  this,  the  king  will 
regard  him  from  the  present,  as  in  a  state  of  war."  The  em- 
peror died  in  36  hours,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 
Francis  IT.  He  immediately,  through  his  minister  announced 
to  the  world,  that  he  had  adopted  the  political  system  of  the 
emperor  his  father.  A  general  change  took  place  in  the 
French  ministry.  At  this  time,  the  English  government  abol- 
ished slavery;  and  count  Ankerstrom  assassinated  Gustavus 
III.  king  of  Sweden. 

A  new  court  of  inquisition  commenced  in  France  at  this 
time,  known  by  the  name  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal : 
nothing  like  this  had  appeared  since  the  inquisition  of  old ; 
and  a  new  instrument  of  death  was  invented,  called  the  guillo- 


EE VOLUTION,  310 

tine,  (from  the  name  of  the  inventor.)  These  enthusiastic 
sons  of  liberty,  who  had  inveighed  so  bitterly  against  the  over- 
bearing persecutions  of  the  pope  and  the  crown,  were  now  in 
their  turn  become  the  instruments  of  a  persecution,  tenfold 
more  bitter  and  bloody  than  either  ;  not  for  orthodoxy  in  reli- 
gion, but  undqr  the  sanction  of  the  sacred  name  of  liberty. 
They  had  yet  to  learn,  that  the  maxim  of  "  compel  them  to 
come  in,"  was  as  cruel  and  unjustifiable  in  social,  as  in  religious 
rights ;  and  that  the  maxim  when  applied  to  liberty,  can  no 
more  be  justified,  than  when  applied  to  the  bull  Unigenitus,  or 
the  Alcoran. 

The  jacobins  had  carefully  originated  a  new  system  of  logic, 
which  served  as  a  smoothing  plane  for  the  violation  of  every 
moral  principle,  and  at  once  destroyed  all  the  sympathies  of 
the  heart.  "  The  end  justifies  the  means  :"  a  worse,  er  more 
dangerous  principle  than  this,  never  existed  amidst  the  wilds 
of  Gothland  ;  and  the  ravages  which  marked  the  over- 
throw of  the  western  Roman  Empire,  with  all  their  extermin- 
ating train,  were  never  founded  upon  a  maxim  so  corrupt  as 
this  5  but  upon  their  savage  usages  of  war,  in  disposing  of 
conquest. 

June  20. — A  mob  in  Paris  of  100,000  men,  armed  with 
muskets  and  artillery,  assaulted  the  palace  of  the  king,  in  or- 
der to  compel  him  to  come  into  their  measures,  and  sanction 
two  decrees  which  he  had  declined.  The  gates  were  thrown 
open,  the  mob  entered  the  palace ;  they  presented  to  the 
king  the  red  cap  of  liberty,  on  the  end  of  a  pike  5  he  took  it, 
put  it  on,  and  the  queen  with  great  good  humour,  distributed 
ribbands  and  May  branches  amongst  the  mob,  as  they  passed 
through  the  apartments^  to  the  number  of  40,000  men  in 
arms.  The  king  the  next  day  issued  a  proclamation  con- 
cerning these  tumults,  and  complained  of  the  violence  done 
by  the  mob.  Francis  II.  at  this  time,  was  elected  emperor 
of  Germany  at  Frankfort,  1792 — and  the  king  announced  to 
the  national  assembly,  that  a  Prussian  army  of  52,000  men, 
were  on  their  march  against  France.  July  9. — The  minister 
for  foreign  affairs  announced,  that  Germany,  Russia,  Turin, 
Naples,  Rome,  Spain  and  Portugal,  had  conspired  against 
France ;  the  assembly  decreed  the  nation  in  danger,  and  de- 
nounced fifty-seven  persons  as  guilty  of  high  treason.  The 
duke  of  Brunswick  published  a  clear,  and  laconic  manifesto. 

The  king,  alarmed  at  this  manifesto,  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  president  of  the  national  assembly  5  disclaimed  all  con- 


320  MASSACRE    OF    THE    GUARDS. 

nectionwith  this  movement,  and  declared,  "  that  it  was  to 
the  nation  that  he  owed  himself — and  that  he  was  one,  and 
the  same  with  her."  At  the  same  sitting,  Petion,  at  the  head 
of  the  commonalty  of  Paris,  appeared  at  the  bar  of  the  assem- 
bly, and  demanded,  "  that  the  king  be  excluded  from  the 
throne,  and  a  ministerial  government  be  appointed,  until  a 
new  king  should  be  chosen."  This  threw  offjlhe  mask,  the 
king  now  realized  his  fate,  he  saw  before  him  the  grave  of 
Charles  I.  ;  he  again  attempted  to  escape  in  the  garb  of  a 
peasant  ;  but  was  recognized  by  a  centinel,  and  secured. 
Here  appeared  the  result  of  the  federation  in  the  Champ  de 
Mars,  of  the  18th  of  July.  Their  deputation  now  appeared 
at  the  bar  of  the  assembly,  August  10,  bearing  a  petition, 
gignedby  thousands  of  citizens,  preceded  by  a  pike,  bearing 
a  red  woolen  cap,  with  this  label  :  "  Deposition  of  the  king." 
Alarmed  for  his  immediate  safety,  the  king,  attended  by 
his  Paris  guards,  the  queen,  his  sister,  and  the  royal  children, 
took  his  seat  by  the  side  of  the  president,  and  said  :  "I  am 
come  amongst  you  to  prevent  a  horrible  crime,  convinced 
that  while  here  I  am  safe." 


CHAP.  IX. 

Mob  of  the  10th  of  August — bold  measures  of  the  Assembly — 
Dumourier — La  Fayette — Massacres — National  Convent  ton 
— Trial  of  Lewis  XVI. — Condemnation. 

THE  materials,  which  had  long  been  collecting,  now  took 
fire,  and  involved  the  whole  city  of  Paris  in  the  explosion. 
The  collection  of  the  mob,  on  the  morning  of  the  10th  of  Au- 
gust, together  with  the  alarming  rage  of  the  populace,  ren- 
dered it  necessary  for  the  king  to  take  this  step.  Acts  of  open 
violence  soon  commenced :  the  mob  attacked  the  Swiss 
guards  at  the  palace — the  guards  made  a  firm  resistance  ;  the 
conflict  became  desperate  ;  a  horrible  carnage  ensued  ;  and 
the  guards  were  shot  down  and  butchered  almost  to  a  man. 
About  25,000  fell  in  this  horrible  massacre.  The  mob  enter- 
ed the  palace  in  triumph,  and  with  unrestrained  fury  burst 
open  the  apartments,  carried  off  the  treasures  of  the  queen, 
overthrew  the  statutes  of  Lewis  XIV.  and  XV.  and  laid  them 
in  ruins ;  and  when  they  had  wreaked  their  vengeance  on  these 


FALL    OF    LA    FAYETTE.  321 

monuments  of  their  kings,  and  laid  waste,  by  their  ravages, 
this  sanctuary  of  royalty — they  retired  and  dispersed. 

This  horrid  scene  filled  all  Paris  with  terror  and  conster- 
nation :  the  national  assembly  were  shocked  with  the  out- 
rage, and  caught  the  general  alarm  :  some  members  trembled 
for  their  own  safety  ;  others  retired,  or  absented  themselves. 
In  the  midst  of  this  scene  of  distress,  they  ordered  the  roll  of 
the  house  to  be  called — decreed,  and  took  the  following  oath  : 
"  I  swear,  in  the  name  of  the  nation,  to  maintain  Liberty  and 
Equality,  or  die  at  my  post."  They  also  decreed,  "  that  the 
French  people  be  invited  to  call  a  national  convention  ;"  and 
"  that  as  the  executive  power  was  provisionally  suspended,  the 
six  ministers  now  in  power,  shall  become  the  executive,  and 
present  the  plan  for  appointing  a  governor  for  the  young 
prince  royal  ;  and  that  the  king  and  royal  family  remain 
under  the  protection  of  the  assembly,  be  considered  as  under 
the  safeguard  of  the  law,  and  their  defence  be  entrusted  to  the. 
national  guards  of  Paris.  They  denounced  as  traitors  and 
infamous,  all  who  should  quit  their  posts  ;  and  ordered  these 
decrees  to  be-  prpclaimed  to  all  Paris,  and  throughout  the 
eighty-three  departments.  These  bold  measures,  were  re- 
ceived with  general  applause,  through  the  nation  ;  and  pro- 
duced a  torrent  of  addresses  to  the  assembly,  of  plaudits  and 
congratulations.  The  ministers,  who  floated  upon  the  top  of 
the  popular  tide  at  this  time,  were  Danton,  Le  Brun,  Roland, 
Servon,  Monge  and  Claviere.  The  royal  family  was  next 
removed  from  the  convent  of  the  Feuillans,  (or  moderates,) 
and  confined  in  the  temple  ;  and  the  marquis  La  Fayette 
moved  his  army  towards  Paris,  in  order  to  arrest  the  violent 
proceedings  against  the  royal  family:  but  alas  !  it  was  now 
too  late  !  He  had  now  to  learn  in  his  turn,  that  it  was  easier 
to  raise,  than  to  control  popular  tumult. 

The  assembly,  apprised  of  his  movement,  decreed  his  ar- 
rest, and  sent  a  deputation  to  enforce  the  decree  :  the  mar- 
quis caused  the  deputation  to  be  arrested  and  imprisoned. 
This  enraged  the  assembly  ;  and  they  decreed,  that  the  mar- 
quis La  Fayette  be  brought,  dead  or  alive,  to  the  bar  of  the 
Assembly.  This  decree  alarmed  the  marquis,  and  he  fled  in- 
to Germany  ;  he  was  seized  atRochfort,  by  the  Austrian  gen- 
eral, and  sent  to  Namur,  and  from  thence  to  the  strong  for- 
tress of  Olmutz,  in  Moravia,  where  he  was  attended  by  his 
wife  and  daughter,  through  along  and  distressing  confinement. 

General  Dumourier,  who  had  preceded  the  marquis  in  the 


322  RIOT    IN    PARIS. 

command,  had  also  attempted  a  compromise,  to  save  the 
royal  family,  been  denounced,  and  commissioners  sent  to  ar- 
rest, and  bring  him  before  the  bar  of  the  assembly  :  these  he 
.  arrested,  and  sent  to  the  Austrian  general,  as  hostages  for 
the  safety  of  the  king,  and  threw  himself  upon  the  mercy  of 
the  emperor  of  Germany.  These  two  champions  of  the 
revolution,  now  felt  the  truth  of  whatmarshal  Ney  afterwards 
said  to  the  emperor  Napoleon — "  Sire,  revolutions  never  go 
Lack."  The  tornado  had  now  acquired  such  force,  that  all 
who  attempted  to  arrest  its  course,  became  like  a  feather  in 
a  tempest — they  were  swept  away. 

We  come  now,  to  the  memorable  second  of  September.  A 
decree  of  the  assembly,  requiring  that  all  the  clergy  should 
take  the  civic  oath,  had  been  but  partially  complied  with  : 
this  opened  the  way  for  vengeance  to  fall  upon  the  old  quar- 
rel of  Jansenist  and  Jesuit,  with  all  the  bitterness  and  vio- 
lence of  party.  A  general  riot  commenced  in  Paris — another 
horrid  massacre  commenced  ;  one  ex-bishop,  and  about  one 
hundred  nonjuring  priests  were  butchered  ;  .the  prisons  were 
all  violated,  the  debtors  released,  and  a  general  political  mas- 
sacre prevailed.  Three  or  four  thousand  stained  the  annals 
of  France  with  their  blood,  on  this  memorable  day,  under  the 
sanction  of  the  mob,  styled  Septemberisers.  The  trophy  of 
this  infuriated  mob  of  barbarians,  was  the  mangled  body  of 
the  princess  De  Lamballe,  borne  in  triumph  to  the  temple, 
and  exposed  to  the  view  of  the  royal  family,  with  her  head 
elevated  upon  a  pole,  and  presented  before  the  window  of 
their  apartment.  The  assembly  passed  a  silent  decree  of 
approbation  and  applause,  upon  this  murderous  scene,  by  an 
oath,  "  that  they  held  royalty  in  detestation  ;  and  swore,  that 
no  king  or  monarch,  should  ever  be  a  stain  upon  the  liberties 
of  the  people." 

At  this  time,  fifty-four  national  prisoners  of  distinction, 
were  arrested  at  Orleans  ;  and  on  their  way  to  Saumer,  they 
passed  through  Versailles,  where  they  were  attacked  by  the 
DOpulace,  and  all  butchered  :  the  principal  among  the  suf- 
ferers, were,  the  duke  of  Brisac,  and  the  bishop  of  Maudes: 
and  on  the  s^me  day,  ninety  priests  were  butchered  at  St. 
Fermin.  Those  massacres  of  the  clergy  were  frequent  and 
numerous  in  Paris,  and  throughout  France,  at  this  time. 

The  assembly  decreed,  that  the  marriage  covenant  might 
be  dissolved  at  the  request  of  cither  party,  os  upon  the  sim- 
ple allegation  of  incompatibility  of  temper,  in  either -party, 
or  other  grounds, 


TRIAL    OF    LEWIS    XVI.  323 

The  declaration  of  war  on  the  part  of  the  German  empire, 
against  France,  was  announced  by  the  minister  of  foreign  af- 
fairs :  and  the  assembly  declared  war  against  Sardinia.  A 
new  epoch  was  then  announced  in  this  scene  of  horror  ;  the 
convention  had  been  elected,  and  were  then  formed  in  the 
palace  of  the  Thuilleries  :  M.  Gregoire,  bishop  of  Blois,  at 
the  head  of  twelve  commissioners,  said  :  "  Citizens,  the  con- 
vention is  constituted,  and  we  are  deputed  to  announce  to 
you,  that  it  is  about  to  repair  here  to  commence  its  sittings." 
The  president  then  said — "  The  legislative  assembly  declares 
its  sitting  closed." 

October  9,  1792. — The  national  convention  opened  its  de- 
crees, with  death  against  all  emigrants.  The  subject  of  a 
new  constitution  next  claimed  their  attention,  and  they  ap- 
pointed a  committee  to  frame  one,  and  present  it  to  the  con- 
vention :  this  committee  was  composed  of  sixteen  ;  at  their 
head,  stood  the  noted  names  of  Sieyes,  Thomas  Paine,  Bris- 
sot,  Danton,  Condorcet,  &c.  At  the  motion  ofBarrere,  (one 
of  the  members  of  this  committee,)  a  decree  was  passed, 
"  inviting  all  the  friends  of  liberty  and  equality,  to  present  to 
the  committee,  in  any  form,  and  in  any  language  whatever, 
the  plans,  methods,  or  means,  which  they  thought  the  best 
calculated  to  form  a  good  constitution  for  the  French  repub- 
lic ;"  passed  with  this  addition — "  Whoever  shall  attempt  to 
establish  royalty,  or  any  other  system  of  government,  deroga- 
tory to  the  sovereignty  of  the  French  people,  shall  be  pun- 
ished with  death."  The  eventful  period,  for  which  the  na- 
tional body  was  organized,  was  now  arrived  :  the  necessary 
previous  steps  had  been  taken  ;  the  public  mind  was  now  pre- 
pared ;  and  the  unfortunate  Lewis  XVI.  called  to  the  bar  of 
the  convention,  to  pass  through  the  9wful  scenes  of  Charles  I. 
of  England,  before  the  mock  parliament.  Upon  his  approach, 
the  president  thus  addressed  the  king  : — 

"  Lewis,  the  French  nation  accuses  you  :  the  convention 
decreed,  on  the  3d  of  December,  that  you  should  be  tried  by 
itself:  on  the  6th  it  was  decreed  that  you  should  be  brought 
to  the  bar  :  they  are  about  to  read  to  you  the  act,  which  an- 
nounces the  crimes  imputed  to  you.  You  may  sit  down." 

The  accusation  was  then  read,  in  the  usual  form,  and  the 
king  interrogated  upon  each  charge,  by  the  president — what 
he  had  to  say  in  his  own  defence  ?  At  the  close,  the  king  re- 
plied— "  1  desire  a  copy  of  the  act  of  accusation,  -is  w  11  as 
ef  all  papers  intended  to  serve  as  proofs  against  me,  and  that 


324  CONDEMNATION    OF    LEWIS    XVI. 

I  may  be  allowed  council  in  my  defence."  Lewis  was  then 
permitted  to  retire  ;  and  after  some  debate,  his  request  was 
granted,  and  counsel  allowed.  Messrs.  Tronchet  and  Lemo- 
ignon  de  Malesherbes,  became  counsel  for  the  king  ;  the 
latter  an  old  man  of  seventy-eight.  The  prosecution  against 
the  unhappy  monarch  of  France,  was  conducted  in  due  form  ; 
and  on  the  17th  of  January,  1793,  his  punishment  was  deter- 
mined by  an  appel  nominal ;  (the  question  was  put  to  each 
member,  and  his  answer  noted.) 

The  president  then  announced  that  the  number  of  votes, 
was  721. 

Answers  for  imprisonment  during  the  war,  -        319 

Answers  for  perpetual  imprisonment,  2 

Answers  for  a  suspension  of  the  sentence  of  death,  until 

the  expulsion  of  the  family  of  Bourbons,  8 

Answers  for  a  suspension  of  death,  unless  the  French 

territory  should  be  invaded,  -         23 

Answers  for  death,  with  commutation  of  punishment,      -       1 

353 
Answers  for  death,  -       368 


Majority  for  death,  15 

Impressed  with  the  solemnity  of  the  scene,  the  president 
then  rose,  took  off  his  hat,  and  declared,  in  a  low  and  solemn 
tone  of  voice,  "  the  punishment  pronounced  by  the  conven- 
tion, against  Lewis  Capet,  is  death."  Philip,  duke  of  Orleans, 
a  relative  of  Lewis  XVI.  was  a  member  of  the  convention, 
and  gave  his  vote,  death  :  but  Thomas  Paine,  voted  only  for 
banishment.  This  is  that  Philip,  duke  of  Orleans,  who  re- 
quested the  convention  t»  give  him  a  new  name  ;  and  receiv- 
ed that  of  Philip  Egalite,  (or  equality.)  The  fate  of  the  king 
was  announced  on  the  20th  of  January,  1793  ;  all  Paris  was 
illuminated,  and  no  person  permitted  to  appear  abroad  ;  the 
whole  city  was  buried  in  the  most  solemn  silence,  and  the 
military  in  large  bodies  patroled  the  streets. 


CHAP.  X. 

Execution  of  Lewis  XVI. — violence  of  the.  convention — Chen 


January  21s/,  1793,  agreeably  to  a  vote  of  the  National 
Convention,  Lewis  16th  was  brought  to  ike  scaffold,  attended  by 
a  military  escort,  and  an  immense  concourse  of  people.  He  at- 
tempted to  speak,  but  was  prevented  by  a  flourish  of  music,  and 
aery  of  "  JVo  speeches.'  JVo  speeches  .'"  Seeing  his  last  hope 
cut  off,  he  exclaimed — ••  [forgive  my  enemies — may  God  for- 
give them,  and  not  lay  my  innocent  blood  to  the  charge  of  the 
nation — God  bless  my  people  .'?'  He  then  stretched  himself  up- 
on the  guillotine,  arid  with  greut  serenity  met  his  fate. 


EXECUTION    OF    LEWIS  XVI.  326 

lotte  Corde — trial  and  execution  of  the  Q?/ecn — triumphs  of 
philosophy. 

ON  Monday,  of  the  fatal,  solemn,  awful  21st,  about  two 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  gloom  of  silence  was  here  and 
there  interrupted,  by  voices  of  lamentation  in  broken  accents, 
expressing  the  distress  of  the  feelings,  and  increasing  the 
horrors  of  the  gloom. 

Lewis,  with  great  composure  and  eminence  of  soul,  passed 
Sunday  in  preparing  for  the  solemn  change.  The  morn  oi 
Monday  came  ;  the  queen,  the  princess  royal,  the  dauphin, 
and  madam  Elizabeth,  took  their  parting  leave  of  the  king. 
The  distresses  of  this  scene,  may  be  realized  by  the  sensibil- 
ities of  a  feeling,  sympathizing  heart,  but  can  never  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  pen.  Lewis  was  calm,  and  possessed  a  digni- 
fied composure  ;  he  retired  for  a  few  moments  with  his 
confessor,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  solemnities  of  religion. 
The  stroke  of  eight  from  the  Paris  clock,  announced  the 
solemn  hour  ;  the  royal  martyr  was  led  forth  to  execution  ; 
placed  in  a  coach  between  two  soldiers,  (or  gens  de  arms)  he 
was  conveyed  to  the  pjace  de  la  Revolution,  amidst  a  large 
military  escort,  and  an  immense  concourse  of  people.  Lewis, 
with  a  firm  step,  ascended  the  scaffold,  attended  by  his- con- 
fessor, and  several  municipal  officers  ;  with  great  complacency 
he  beheld  the  multitude,  and  made  an  effort  to  address  the 
spectators — but  was  stopped  by  an  officer,  who  exclaimed, 
"  come,  come,  no  speeches,  no  speeches  :"  this  was  accom- 
panied by  a  flourish  of  music.  Lewis  saw  at  once  that  his 
last  hope  was  cut  off,  and  exclaimed — "  I  forgive  my  ene- 
mies, may  God  forgive  them,  and  not  lay  my  innocent  blood 
to  the  charge  of  the  nation  ;  God  biers  my  people'' — he  gave 
his  affectionate  blessing  to  his  confessor,  stretched  himself 
upon  the  fatal  guillotine,  and  with  great  serenity  met  his  fate 
—  12  o'clock,  January  21,  1793. 

Desperation  now  seized  every  department,  and  witnessed 
rvery  measure  in  France.  The  nation  was  like  a  ship  in 
the  midst  of  a  tempest,  without  a  pilot,  tossed  with  violence. 
and  at  the  mercy  of  the  waves,  and  the  storm.  The  request 
of  the  unhappy  king  to  be  buried  with  his  fathers,  was  treated 
by  the  convention  with  the  silence  of  apathy  ;  pml  his  body 
was  thrown  into  a  pit  with  quicklime,  and  consumed.  One 
of  the  ex-king's  guards,  assassinated  Lfc  Pelletiere,  one  of  the 


o26  TRIAL    OF    THE 

Convention,  whose  vote  against  the  king  was  death  ;  and  the 
convention  attended  his  funeral  on  the  24th.  The  sanguinary 
scene  was  opened  afresh,  and  the  convention  in  their  turn 
began  to  bleed  ;  the  righteous  vengeance  of  heaven  never 
spared  them,  until  they  had  by  their  own  blood,  made  some 
atonement  for  this  outrage  on  the  life  of  the  king.  Great  heat 
and  bitterness,  now  marked  the  proceedings  of  the  conven- 
tion. The  barbarian  Marat,  outraged  all  common  decency, 
in  his  attacks  on  the  members  in  debate,  with  the  opprobrious 
epithets  of  "  incendiary,  assassin,  villain,  scoundrel,"  &c.  ; 
which  called  forth  a  decree,  that  "  whoever  should  use  such 
injurious  language  towards  any  member  should  be  expelled." 
Marat  denounced  the  framers  of  the  decree,  as  conspirators. 
The  convention  were  now  at  issue.  The  violence  of  those 
passions  which  had  wreaked  their  rage  and  fury  upon  the  un- 
fortunate king,  were  now  turned  upon  themselves.  They 
denounced  Condorcet  as  a  traitor  to  his  country,  and  he  met 
his  fate  :  to  denounce  and  execute,  were  now  synonymous 
terms.  The  famous  Charlotte  Corde,  took  vengeance  on 
Marat,  and  sacrificed  him  upon  the  altar  of  her  country,  by 
stabbing  him  to  the  heart  ;  for  which,  she  suffered  death  in 
her  turn,  by  a  decree  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal.  The  en- 
thusiasm of  this  heroine  may  be  learnt  from  her  last  words  :. 
•v  'Tis  guilt  brings  shame,  not  the  scaffold." 

During  these  distressing  scenes  in  the  interior  of  France. 
her  armies  under  Gen.  Dumourier  and  others  had  been  suc- 
ressful  ;  the  allies  had  moved  with  caution,  lest  they  should 
endanger  the  life  of  the  king  :  they  advanced  into  Flanders  ; 
laid  siege  to,  and  tookValentienr.es.  This  enraged  the  con- 
vention, they  denounced  the  queen,  ordered  her  to  be  ar- 
rested, arid  conducted  to  prison  ;  August  1.  The  decree 
was  executed  the  same  night ;  the  queen  was  roused  from  her 
repose,  and  hurried  in  a  most  unfeeling  manner  from  her 
family,  to  her  place  of  confinement,  a  cell,  a  dungeon,  eight 
feet  square — and  doomed  to  lodge  on  a  couch  of  straw ! 
>h-nrk  with  the  jiorrors  of  the  cell,  she  fell  into  a  swoon,  and 
passed  the  rest  of  the  night  in  those  violent  struggles  of  na- 
ture, which  threaten  momentary  dissolution.  The  approach 
of  morn,  witnessed  the  ravages  of  distress  upon  the  graces  of 
the  queen  :  she  lived  :  but  ah  !  bow  changed.  She  languish- 
ed in  this  horrid  cell,  until  the  loth  and  16th  of  the  month, 
when  she  was  summoned  to  her  trial  before  this  revolutiona- 
ai;d  after  the  u^ual  forms  of  trial,  theinry  Rafter 


L  X E  C U  T 1 0 N    O  F    T II E    <* I  E  E N .  3 ''J  T 

one  hour)  returned  a  verdict  of  guilty  of  all  the  charges  al- 
leged. The  president  then  rose,  and  after  the  usual  ceremo- 
nies pronounced  the  following  sentence  : — "  The  tribunal, 
after  the  unanimous  declaration  of  the  jury,  in  conformity  to 
the  laws  cited,  condemn  the  said  Maria  Antoinette,  called  of 
Lorrain  and  Austria,  widow  of  Lewis  Capet,  to  the  penalty 
of  death  ;  her  goods  confiscated  for  the  benefit  of  the  repub- 
lic :  and  this  sentence  shall  be  executed  in  the  Place  of  the 
Revolution."  The  queen  received  this  sentence  with  the 
same  composure  which  she  had  supported  through  the  whole 
scene.  The  trial  spun  out,  through  the  night  ;  arid  at  half 
past  4  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  queen  was  re-condacted 
to  her  cell,  in  the  prison  La  Conciergerie  :  no  time  was  al- 
lowed her  for  reflection  or  repose  ;  "at 5 o'clock  thegenerale 
was  beat — at  7  the  whole  armed  force  was  on  parade,  can- 
rion  were  planted  upon  the  squares,  and  at  the  extremities  of 
the  bridges,  from  the  palace,  to  the  place  La  Revolution — 
at  10  o'clock,  numerous  patroles  passed  through  the  streets 
— at  half  past  11,  the  queen  was  brought  out  of  her  cell, 
dressed  in  a  white  dishabille  ;  she  was  conducted  to  the 
place  of  execution  in  an  open  cart  ;  her  hair  from  behind 
was  cut  off ;  her  hands  were  tied  behind  her  back,  and  her 
back  turned  towards  the  horse  :  on  her  right  sat  the  execu- 
tioner ;  on  her  left,  a  constitution :il  priest,"  (or  one  who  hud 
taken  the  oath  to  support  the  constitution.)  The  queen  pas-- 
ed  to  her  execution,  insensible  to  the  shouts  of  Five  la  Liber- 
ty, Mas  la  Tyrannic,  Five  la  Republic  ;  she  beheld  with  in- 
difference, the  vast  military  escort  of  30,000  men,  and  the 
placards  of  liberty  and  equality,  posted  on  the  houses -where* 
she  passed  ;  she  ascended  the  scaffold  in  some  haste,  cast 
her  eyes  upon  the  populace  ;  with  a  look  took  leave  of  her 
palace,  laid  her  head  upon  the  guillotine,  and  met  her  fate, 
at  12  o'clock,  aged  thirty-eight  :  the  same  place,  and  same 
hour,  witnessed  the  death  of  her  husband,  just  eight 
months  and  twenty-six  days  before.  The  executioner,  ac- 
cording t©  the  usual  form,  exhibited  the  head  from  the  four 
corners  of  the  stage  ;  and  the  populace  as  usual,  exclaimed, 
Vive  la  Republic,  Vive  la  Liberty.  Her  body  was  thrown  in- 
to a  grave  of  quick-lime,  in  the  same  place  and  manner  of 
her  husband. 

Thus  fell  Lewis  XVI.  thus  fell  Maria  Antoniette— king  and 
queen  of  France :  victims  to  the  same  passions  which  com- 
menced in  the  reicm  of  Lewis  XIV.  which  occasioned  Lewis 


328  HORRORS    OF    THE  CONVENTION. 

XV.  to  dissolve  his  parliament,  and  which  armed  the  knife  of 
the  assassin  who  stabbed  the  king,  and  by  a  wound  restored 
the  parliaments,  and  expelled  the  order  of  the  Jesuits.  The 
same  passions  were  rekindled  ;  and  when  transferred  from  the 
schools  ofthe  Jesuits,  totheschools  of  the  philosophers,  were 
swelled  into  a  mighty  blaze,  which  inflamed  the  whole  na- 
tion, and  were  now  shedding  torrents  of  blood,  by  the  revo- 
lutionary tribunal,  guided  and  controlled  by  the  Jacobin  club. 

This  club  which  commenced  under  the  auspices  and  di- 
rection of  the  philosophers  of  France,  had  now  become  very 
numerous,  embracing  all  the  choice  spirits  of  violence  and 
corruption  in  the  nation. 

The  king  and  queen  were  now  dead  ;  and  no  longer  the  ob- 
jects of  that  dread  and  hatred,  which  served  as  a  rallying 
point,  for  the  members  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal.  The 
same  fire  of  ambition  and  revenge,  which  destroyed  the  roy- 
al family,  now  commenced  its  ravages  upon  their  own  body. 

The  allies  pushed  the  war  in  Flanders.  England  dismis- 
sed the  French  minister,  arul  proclaimed  war  against  France. 
Horror  and  alarm  seized  on  the  convention  :  Brissot,  with 
twenty  other  members,  were  denounced  as  conspirators,  and 
executed.  The  ravages  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  were 
marked  with  blood,  through  the  nation  ;  mobs,  insurrections 
apd  massacres,  rendered  all  France,  one  great  theatre  of  car- 
nage, and  one  dark  scene  of  horror.  The  ravages  of  the 
guillotine,  threatened  to  exterminate  the  clergy  :  all  fled  that 
could  flee  ;  others  resigned  their  ecclesiastical  functions. 

Gobert,  bishop  of  Paris,  with  all  his  grand  vicars,  divested 
themselves,  at  the  bar  of  the  convention,  of  their  letters  of 
priesthood  :  Lindet  and  Gregoire  followed  their  example. — 
Seventy  persons  were  guillotined  in  one  day  at  Lyons  ;  on 
the  next  day  sixty-eight  were  shot,  and  eight  guillotined. 

An  insurrection  in  La  Vendee,  now  raged  with  violence  ; 
and  the  French  arms  under  general  Turreu,  ravaged  the 
country.  Philosophy  now  triumphed  over  religion,  as  well 
as  over  the  clergy  :  the  convention  abolished  all  religion,  and 
decreed,  "  there  is  no  God,  and  death  is  an  eternal  sleep." 


CHAP.    XL 

Insurrection  of  La  Vendee  ;  fall  of  Robespierre ;  Grand  Jlr- 


WAR    IN     LA    VENDEE.  329- 

mistice  of  La  Vendee ;  Jacobin  Insurrection  ;  death  of  Lena- 
is  the  son  of  the  king ;  new  constitution ;  revolution  in  Hol- 
land. 

THE  war  in  La  Vendee  now  claims  some  attention.  The' 
causes  which  produced  these  sanguinary  and  distressing 
scenes,  were  the  triumph  of  philosophy  over  religion,  and 
the  triumph  of  philosophers  over  every  vestige  of  moral  vir- 
tue, and  the  moral  sympathies. 

They  had  announced  that  the  clergy  could  never  have 
raised  this  world  and  rendered  it  subservient  to  their  domin- 
ion and  control,  if  they  had  not  fixed  the  lever  upon  the  oth- 
er world.  They  had  now  struck  away  all  support  of  the  lev- 
er, and  announced  no  God  ;  and  further,  that  death  was  an 
eternal  sleep.  That  quiet  after  death,  which  had  been  pur- 
chased with  so  many  pilgrimages,  crusades,  or  holy  wars — 
by  whole  lives  of  penitential  self-denial,  with  the  purchase  of 
go  much  money  to  obtain  the  viaticum  of  the  holy  unction, 
was  now  rendered  free  to  all,  in.  the  doctrine  that "  death  was 
an  eternal  sleep." 

The  churches  of  religion  became  republican  tribunes, 
where  republican  principles  were  to  be  preached,  and  the 
disciples  of  the  philosophers  to  become  the  orators  of  the 
day.  The  national  convention  decreed,  "  that  the  remains  of 
Mirabeau  should  be  removed  from  the  Pantheon,  and  those 
of  Marat  be  put  in  their  place." 

Under  the  sanction  of  these  feelings  and  these  principles, 
the  war  raged  in  La  Vendee.  Five  hundred  royalists,  pris- 
oners in  La  Vendeei,  were  shot  by  order  of  the  commissioner 
Leguino  ;  the  commissioners,  Turreu  and  Prieur,  announced 
to  the  convention  a  terrible  action  in  La  Vendee — six  thou- 
sand slain,  and  three  hundred  driven  into  the  Loire  :  this 
reign  of  Robespierre  drenched  the  convention  and  the  nation 
with  blood. 

January  1,  1794,  Thomas  Paine  was  arrested,  and  a  depu- 
tation of  Americans  appeared  at  the  bar  of  the  convention  to 
petition  for  his  release  ;  and  to  shew  him  not  guilty,  but  a 
true  apostle  of  liberty. 

Carrier  made  a  report  on  the  war  in  La  Vendee,  in  which 
he  stated  that  more  than  400  leagues  were  in  arms  ;  that 
the  rebels  were  more  than  150,000  ;  that  in  one  battle  were 
slain  more  than  20,000  ;  that  4  or  500  prisoners  p'Mi-hed 
daily,  either  by  shooting  or  drowning,  and  that  some  pit:  e- 

28* 


"330  FALL    OF     ROBESPIERKF,. 

tained  5000."  Their  mode  of  drowning  was  to  crowd  the 
hold  of  vessels  with  prisoners,  set  them  afloat  on  the  river, 
scuttle  the  vessel,  and  let  them  sink. 

At  this  time,  the  convention  decreed  the  people  of  color, 
and  blacks,  in  the  French  West  India  Colonies,  all  free. 

A  terrible  denunciation  fell  on  thirteen  members  of  the  con- 
vention, and  was  sealed  with  the  guillotine  ;  amongst  the  num- 
ber were  Danton,  Lacroix,  Phillippeauz.  Robespierre  tri- 
umphed again.  That  jealousy  and  ambition  which  raged 
throughout  the  nation,  and  marked  its  ravages  with  blood,  still 
raged  in  the  convention,  and  rendered  that  body  an  alcedama. 

Old  Malesherbes,  who  defended  Lewis  XVI.  at  the  age  of 
seventy-eight,  was  now  covicted  of  corresponding  with  the 
enemy,  and  guillotined  :  and  madam  Elizabeth,  sister  to  the 
king,  met  the  same  fate.  Cecilia  Regnault,  imitating  the  ex- 
ample of  Charlotte  Corde,  attempted  to  assassinate  Robes- 
pierre, and  Collot  de  Herbois,  and  met  the  fate  of  Charlotte 
Corde,  the  next  day — July  27. 

The  cup  of  vengeance  was  now  full  ;  the  tyranny  of  Ro- 
bespierre and  his  party,  had  now  become  insupportable  :  the 
vials  of  wrath  were  ready  to  be  poured  out  upon  them  ;  they 
were  denounced,  and  their  arrest  ordered  ;  a  gens  de  arms 
attempted  to  seize  the  tyrant  ;  he  defended  himself  with  a 
knife  ;  a  conflict  ensued  ;  he  was  subdued  ;  an  act  of  out- 
lawry wgft  passed  against  him  ;  he  was  ordered  for  immedi- 
ate execution,  with  Robespierre  the  younger,  Couthon,  St. 
Just,  and  fifteen  or  twenty  others,  creatures  of  the  tyrant. 
Next  in  turn  was  arrested,  Tinville,  public  accuser  to  the 
^evolutionary  tribunal. 

In  the  midst  of  these  revolutionary  scenes  of  distress,  the 
world  was  struck  with  a  republican  rhapsody  from  Geraud, 
Upon  the  subject  of  national  education.  After  observing  that 
France  was  elevated  upon  the  pinnacle  of  earthly  splendor, 
that  the  eyes  of  mankind  were  fixed  upon  those  doctrines  and 
principles  which  had  effaced  the  ignorance,  degradation  and 
slavery  of  fourteen  centuries;  that  the  slaves  of  despotism 
had  been  struck  with  a  mortal  terror  ;  a-  protecting  divinity 
had  elevated  her  empire  upon  the  smoking  ruins  of  a  throne, 
and  on  the  bloody  remnants  of  expiring  factions  ;  he  ex- 
claimed : — 

"  Mandatories  of  a  great  nation  !  Let  us  consecrate  a  du- 
rable monument  to  the  rising  generation  ;  the  Areopagus  of 


SUFFERINGS  OF  LA  VENDEE.  331 

Europe  ought  now  to  consolidate  the  majestic  edifice  of  our 
immortal  revolution,  on  the  immoveable  basis  of  public  in- 
struction. Before  we  abandon  the  helm  of  public  affairs,  let 
us  announce  to  our  constituents,  with  a  true  republican  bold- 
ness, to  France,  to  all  Europe,  that  we  contemplate  with  one 
inviolable  maxim,  that  without  public  education,  the  empire 
of  morals  must  be  destroyed." 

That  system  of  education  thus  contemplated,  ought  to  be 
in  operation  many  centuries  in  France,  to  accomplish  that 
degree  of  intelligence  and  information,  amongst  the  lower 
classes  of  her  citizens,  which  could  enable  her  to  support  a 
republican  government,  even  if  she  could  be  wholly  divested 
of  her  monarchical  prejudices  and  habits  ;  and  her  philoso- 
phers, with  all  their  boasted  light  and  wisdom,  ought  to  have 
known  this,  or  if  they  did  know  it,  they  ought  not  to  have 
built  their  ambitious  schemes  upon  a  foundation,  which 
must  of  course  swim  in  blood. 

We  have  witnessed  how  the  blood  of  the  royal  martyrs 
has  again  stained  the  convention. 

The  following  extract  of  a  letter  from  general  Danicamp 
will  shew,  how  the  war  raged  in  La  Vendee.  "  I  will  prove 
that  old  men  were  murdered  in  their  beds,  that  infants  were 
murdered  at  their  mother's  breasts,  and  that  pregnant  women 
were  guillotined.  I  will  tell  you  in  what  place,  at  what  time, 
and  by  whose  orders,  I  have  seen  magazines  of  all  kinds 
burned.  The  practice  of  drowning  was  not  confined  to 
Nantz,  it  extended  thirty  leagues  up  the  Loire  :  I  will  de- 
monstrate that  the  men  who  now  assume  the  mask  of  philan- 
thropy, were  then  the  murderers."  Immediately  upon  this. 
Carrier,  commissioner  in  La  Vendee,  was  arrested  and  exe- 
cuted, for  the  horrid  cruelties  practised  by  him  in  La  Vendee. 

February  19,  1795 — An  armistice  was  concluded  in  La 
Vendee,  and  Carnot  presented  to  the  convention  a  list  of  the 
principal  victories  obtained  in  La  Vendee  this  campaign — 
viz  :  "  twenty  seven  victories,  of  which  eight  were  pitched 
battles  :  121  actions  of  less  importance  ;  80,000  enemies 
slain,  9 1 ,000  taken  prisoners  ;  116  strong  towns,  or  important 
places  taken,  36  of  them  by  siege  or  blockade  ;  230  fort?  or 
redoubts  ;  3800  pieces  of  cannon  ;  70,000  muskets  ;  KOOO,000 
Ibs.  of  powder  ;  and  90  pair  of  colors — all  within  the  space 
of  seventeen  months." 

M:vy  5. — Fresh  scenes  of  distress  awaited  the  devoted 
city  of  Lyons,  and  she  was  again  doomed  to  a  most  shocking 


332  INSURRECTION  OF    PARIS. 

massacre.  The  noted  Tinville,  (who  prosecuted  the  queen) 
with  his  accomplices,  were  executed  at  Paris  the  12th,  and 
on  the  20th  a  most  terrible  insurrection  broke  out  in  Paris,  on 
the  part  of  the  jacobins  to  recover  the  blow  they  received  by 
the  fall  of  Robespierre.  The  deputy  Ferrand  was  assassinat 
ed  in  the  convention,  and  his  head  carried  through  the  hall 
stuck  upon  a  pole. 

Nineteen  persons  were  guillotined  in  Paris,  for  aiding  in 
the  insurrection  of  the  20th  of  May.  At  this  time,  died  in 
his  prison,  Lewis,  son  of  the  late  king  Lewis  XVJ.  aged  1 1- 
years.  An  address  from  the  insurgent  chiefs  of  La  Vendee, 
to  the  king  of  England,  expressive  of  their  grateful  recollec- 
tion of  the  succor  afforded  them  during  their  arduous  strug- 
gle, and  their  hopes  of  future  aid,  shewed,  that  this  insurrec- 
tion was  an  effort  of  England,  to  weaken  the  arms  of  France. 
This,  with  olher  operations  on  the  part  of  England,  led  to  a 
numerous  meeting  at  Copenhagen-house  near  London,  to  pe- 
tition his  majesty  to  discontinue  the  war. 

At  this  eventful  period,  France  opened  a  new  scene  :  a  new 
constitution  was  framed,  adopted,  and  a  new  legislature  were 
assembled  Dec.  28,  organized,  and  composed  of  a  council  of 
ancients,  and  a  council  of  five  hundred  with  an  executive  of 
five,  called  the  directory,  who  were  installed  in  Paris  Nov.  1  ; 
the  plan  of  this  executive  was,  that  each  should  reign  in  his 
tarn.  On  the  26th  of  Dec.  Charlotte  Antoniette,  daughter  of 
Lewis  XVI.  was  taken  from  the  temple  by  the  minister  of 
the  interior,  conducted  to  his  own  hotel,  and  from  thence  sent 
to  Vienna,  where  she  arrived  safe — 1796. 

At  this  time,  parties  ran  high  in  England  ;  Charles  Fox 
flattered  the  populace,  and  disturbed  the  government  ;  their 
majesties  were  insulted  in  the  streets  of  London,  and  the  mob 
abused  the  king's  servants.  A  revolution  had  commenced 
in  Holland  ;  the  stadtholder  had  retired  to  England  with  his 
family,  in  January,  1795.  The  national  convention  of  Hol- 
land was  organized  March  1,  1796,  and  citizen  Paulus  elect- 
ed president.  An  extract  of  the  order  of  procession  will  be  a 
specimen  of  the  genius  of  the  Batavian  Republic. — ''Amongst 
other  displays  in  this  splendid  procession,  appeared  a  waggoo 
covered  with  cloth  so  as  to  conceal  its  wheels,  having  three 
benches  :  on  the  hinderrnost,  was  seated  an  old  man,  bowed 
down  with  age,  carrying  a  flag  with  this  inscription  : — *  I  liv- 
ed in  slavery  ;  but  I  rejoice  in  dying  free.  My  posterity  who 


REVOLUTION    OF    HOLLAND. 


are  before  me,  will  feel  all  the  benefits.'  On  the  bench  he- 
fore  the  old  man  were  seated  two  aged  women,  who  repre- 
sented his  daughters  ;  and  before  them  were  two  men  with 
their  children  on  their  knees.  The  horses  were  led  by  four 
young  men,  the  waggon  was  surrounded  by  six  burgeose  with 
drawn  swords,  preceded  by  a  herald  carrying  a  banner,  with 
this  inscription  :  *  We  will  protect  them  that  cannot  protect 
themselves.'  The  powerful  effect  of  such  a  display  of  ad- 
dress to  the  populace,  is  more  readily  felt  than  described." 

The  revolutionary  principles  which  had  spread  into  Eng- 
land, distressed  the  government  ;  the  military  were  in  con- 
stant readiness  to  keep  the  peace  :  the  government  ordered  a 
national  fast.  The  chief  in  the  insurrection  of  La  Vendee, 
La  charette,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  shot  April  1.  Pichegru, 
who  had  succeeded  La  Fayette  in  Flanders,  was  now  suc- 
ceeded by  Gen.  Moreau,  and  prince  Charles  set  out  from 
Vienna  to  command  the  Austrian  armies.  Mr.  Pitt  brought 
forward  his  budget  for  a  loan  of  7,000,000,  and  Thomas  Paine 
amused  the  French  directory,  with  a  pamphlet  upon  the  de- 
cay and  fall  of  the  English  system  of  Finance  ;  which  was 
ordered  to  be  printed  and  distributed  to  all  the  members  of  the 
national  council.  On  the  22d  of  June,  the  insurrection  in  La 
Vendee  was  wholly  quelled,  and  the  republic  acknowledged. 


CHAP.   XII. 

State  of  France — movements  of  the  Armies — Napoleon  Bona- 
parte— peace  zvith  Spain — Conquests  in  Italy — Milan. 

WE  have  now  reviewed  in  a  cursory  manner,  the  distress- 
es of  the  interior  of  France,  but  have  omitted  the  operations 
of  the  armies  for  a  separate  detail,  that  the  events  might  not 
be  blended  together,  and  that  the  general  occurrences  might 
be  more  distinctly  marked.  The  operations  of  the  armies 
now  claim  some  attention.  The  movements  under  generals 
Dumourier  and  La  Fayette  we  have  noticed,  together  with 
the  appointment  of  gen.  Pichegru.  We  have  shewn  the  jaco- 
bin club  to  be  the  spring  of  all  the  movements  of  the  national 
councils.  We  hnve  shewn  the  origin  ot  this  revolutionary 
mob,  how  it  grew  into  power,  by  overbearing  and  destroying 
the  Feuillans,  or  moderates; 


RECAPITULATION. 


These  two  factions  afterwards  became  blended  in  the  club, 
and  in  the  convention  ;  they  were  restrained  from  open 
violence  and  hostility  against  themselves,  during  the  life 
the  royal  martyrs:  but  when  these  objects  of  their  attention 
were  removed,  all  restraint  was  withdrawn,  and  that  balance 
of  power,  which  marked  the  strength  of  the  parties  in  their 
sentence  upon  the  king,  was  at  once  turned  upon  itself. — 
These  were  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  Girondists, 
and  the  .Mountain  ;  ,of  the  latter,  were  Robespierre  and  the 
Jacobins. 

Under  this  government,  Dumourier  carried  the  arms  of 
France  into  the  heart  of  Austrian  Flanders,  and  subdued 
Belgium — watched,  regulated,  directed  and  controlled  by 
commissioners  from  the  jacobin  faction,  in  the  national  coun- 
cil. These  sowed  the  seeds  of  French  philosophy,  and 
French  liberty,  by  establishing  revolutionary  clubs  in  every 
city  they  entered  ;  these  clubs  inspired  the  conquered  pro- 
vinces, on  all  sides  of  France,  to  pour  in  their  addresses  to 
the  national  council,  congratulating  them  upon  their  success- 
es, and  praying  to  be  incorporated  with  the  glorious  republic. 

In  the  midst  of  these  flattering  prospects,  the  scenes  were 
changed — the  low  state  of  the  finances  of  France  called  for 
supplies  to  conduct  her  ambitious  plans  arid  operations  ;  the 
Jacobins  compelled  Dumourier  to  lay  contributions  in  the 
conquered  provinces  ;  this  excited  alarm  ;  these  fell  short 
of  the  pressing  exigencies  of  the  armies  ;  they  ordered  him  to 
rifle  the  churches,  seize  on  the  plate,  and  apply  it  to  the  use 
of  the  army  ;  this  struck  a  fatal  blow — the  Belgians  had  not 
yet  immolated  these  altars  to  French  philosophy,  denounced 
their  God,  and  buried  their  religion  in  the  death  of  eter- 
ii:il  sleep. 

Fired  with  a  just  indignation,  they  resisted  the  outrage  ; 
and  by  the  assistance  of  the  Prussians,  drove  the  French  out 
of  Belgium.  To  obviate  this  fatal  rashness,  as  well  as  to 
save  the  king — Dumourier  and  La  Fay ette,  attempted  a  com- 
promise by  negotiation  ;  both  fell  a  sacrifice  to  jacobin  fury, 
and  fled  into  exile.  Gen.  Pichegru,  (who  succeeded  to  the 
command  in  1794,)  sensible  of  the  rock,  on  which  both  par- 
ties had  split — by  his  popularity  healed  the  breach,  secured 
the  conquest  of  the  Low  Countries,  and  penetrated  into  Hol- 
land. The  Dutch,  alarmed  for  their  safety,  inundated  their 
country  about  Amsterdam,  and  made  a  firm  resistance. 

In  the  month  of  January,  1795,  the  frosts  were  so  severe. 


,. 

en 
of 


FALL    OF    AMSTERDAM.  33o 

that  the  ice  became  passible ;  and  Pichegru  moved  his  army 
across  into  Amsterdam,  and  it  fell  an  easy  conquest  to  the 
French.  With  the  fall  of  Amsterdam,  the  other  provinces 
of  Holland  fell  in  quick  succession  :  their  Stadtholder  and 
bank  were  removed  to  England,  January,  1795,  and  on  the 
1st  of  March,  the  republic  of  Batavia  was  organized. 

The  factions  in  the  French  convention,  kept  the  example 
of  Cesar,  in  his  triumph  over  the  Roman  republic,  and  the 
example  of  General  Monk,  in  the  restoration  of  Charles  I.  of 
England,  as  great  reflecting  mirrors,  constantly  before  their 
eyes.  To  guard  against  a  repetition  of  these  examples,  they 
kept  their  commissioners  with  their  armies,  to  watch  their 
generals.  The  successful  campaign  of  general  Pichegru,  ex- 
posed him  to  this  jealousy  ;  and  he  was  regularly  succeeded 
in  command,  by  general  Moreau — who  was  appointed  by 
the  convention,  to  lead  the  expedition  of  the  French  army 
upon  the  Rhine  and  Moselle. 

GeneralJourdan  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  anoth- 
er army  on  the  Meuse.  The  object  of  these  two  armies 
was,  to  pursue  the  former  plans  of  France  in  their  wars — 
fas  far  back  as  Francis  I.)  to  penetrate  into  Germany,  forma 
junction  upon  the  Danube,  and  march  down  to  Vienna,  and 
there  form  a  junction  with  another  army,  destined  to  pene- 
trate by  the  way  of  Italy  and  the  Tyrol.  The  command  of 
this  third  army  was  entrusted  to  general  Bonaparte,  who  was 
raised  to  this  important  command,  at  the  age  of  twenty-five. 

As  this  campaign  was  one  of  the  most  important  the  French 
had  then  ever  witnessed,  on  the  side  of  Italy,  I  will  give  a 
short  sketch  of  the  origin  of  this  young  hero  of  France. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  was  born  on  the  island  of  Corsica,  in 
the  year  1*769  ;  he  received  his  education,  partly  in  France, 
and  partly  in  Padia,  in  Italy,  at  the  military  school :  he  en- 
tered the  French  service,  as  a  military  adventurer,  and  pass- 
ed without  much  notice,  until  the  famous  massacre  of  Paris, 
on  the  10th  of  August  ;  here  he  so  distinguished  himself  by 
hi?  coolness  and  firmness,  in  protecting  the  directory,  that 
they  raised  him  to  the  command  of  the  army  of  Italy.  When 
be  had  accepted  the  trust,  he  was  thus  interrogated  by  some 
friends  :  "  Are  you  not  too  young  a  man  to  take  the  com- 
mand upon  so  distant  an  expedition  1"  to  which  the  young 
general  replied — "  I  shall  be  older  when  I  come  back." 

Spain,  at  this  time,   made  a  part  of  the  coalition  against 


336  GENERAL    BONAPARTE. 

France.  General  Bonaparte  made  a  sudden  movement  with 
his  army  towards  Spain,  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  entered  the 
northern  provinces,  without  much  opposition,  settled  a  sepa- 
rate peace,  returned  into  France,  and  pursued  his  march  into 
Italy.  On  the  plains  of  Montenotte,  he  gained  his  first  victo- 
ry, over  General  Bolieu  ;  his  second  victory  over  the  united 
Austrians  and  Piedmontese  at  Milessimo  ;  and  his  third, 
at  Mondovi,  over  the  same  forces  ;  and  he  announced  to  the 
directory,  the  capture  of  twenty-one  stands  of  colors.  The 
following  extract  of  an  address,  published  by  general  Bona- 
part,  to  the  municipalities  of  Milan  and  Pavia.  may  serve  as  a 
specimen  ofthe  artful  policy  of  general  Bonaparte. 

"  The  sciences,which  do  honor  to  the  human  mind  ;  and 
the  arts,  which  embellish  human  life,  and  transmit  illustrious 
actions  to  posterity,  shouhibe  peculiarly  respected  in  all  free 
governments.  All  men  of  Genius,  all  who  have  obtained  a 
distinguished  rank  in  the  republic  of  letters  are  Frenchmen, 
whatever  may  be  the  country  in  which  they  were  born.  The 
states  of  Milan  did  not  enjoy  the  consideration  to  which  they 
were  entitled  :  inclosed  in  the  recesses  of  their  laboratories, 
they  esteemed  themselves  happy,  if  the  kings  and  priests 
were  good  enough  to  do  them  no  harm.  At  this  day,  it  is 
not  so  :  opinions  are  free  in  Italy.  Inquisitions,  intolerance, 
and  despots  are  no  more. 

"  I  invite  the  learned  to  assemble,  and  to  propose  to  me, 
their  views,  their  names,  or  the  assistance  they  may  want,  to 
give  new  life  and  existence  to  the  sciences  and  fine  arts.  All 
those  who  may  be  desirous  of  going  to  France,  shall  be  re- 
ceived with  distinction  by  the  government.  The  people  of 
France,  set  a  greater  value  upon  the  acquisition  of  a  learned 
mathematician,  a  painter  of  reputation,  or  any  distinguished 
man,  whatever  maybe  his  profession,  than  in  the  possession 
of  the  richest,  and  most  abundant  city.  Be  you  then,  citi- 
zens, the  organ  of  these  sentiments,  to  all  persons  in  the  Mi- 
lanese, distinguished  for  their  learning." 

The  effects'of  this  popular  stroke  were  best  expressed  by 
the  exhibition  of  popular  applause,  which  witnessed  his  tri- 
umphant entry  into  the  city  of  Milan.  Gen.  Bonaparte  was 
met  by  a  deputation  ofthe  council  general,  who  presented 
him  with  the  keys ;  the  deputation,  with  the  arch  bishop  at 
their  head  accompanied  by  the  magistrates  and  noblesse,  with 
their  splendid  equipages,  followed  the  general  in  grand  pro- 
cession, as  he  advanced  into  the  city  of  Milan,  preceded  by 


CAMPAIGN    OF    ITALY.  337 

a  large  detachment  of  infantry,  and  his  guards — the  national 
guard  of  the  Milanese  closed  the  procession. 

This  procession  moved  with  great  order  to  the  archducal 
palace,  as  the  quarters  of  the  general,  where  he  was  enter- 
tained with  a  grand  dinner  of  two  hundred  covers  ;  French 
and  Italian  music  graced  the  scene  with  alternate  airs — vive 
la  liberty,  vive  la  republic  filled  the  great  square  around  the 
tree  of  liberty.  The  ladies  of  Milan,  dressed  in  the  national 
colours  of  France,  gave  splendor  to  a  ball,  which  closed  this 
scene  of  general  hilarity.  General  Bonaparte  moved  to  Ve- 
rona ;  he  also  seized  on  Loretto  and  Anconn,  cities  of  the  pa- 
pal dominions,  and  at  the  same  time,  concluded  an  armistice 
with  the  king  of  Naples — which  the  general  announced  to 
the  directory. 


CHAP.  XIII. 

Battle  of  Castiglione — bridge  of  Lodi — panic  of  the  4000 — 
siege  of  Mantua — campaign  of  the  Rhine,  Meuse  and  Mo- 
selle— victories  of  prince  Charles — -fallofKehl — of  Mantua. 

AN  action  commenced  at  Gastiglione,  which  lasted  five 
days  successively  ;  the  Austrians  and  Italians  were  com- 
manded by  old  field  mareschal  Wurmser,  in  which  the  French 
were  victorious  ;  70  field  pieces,  with  all  their  cassions, 
6000  killed  and  wounded,  and  15,000  prisoners,  were  the 
trophies  of  this  victory. 

At  the  bridge  of  Lodi,  the  Austrians  had  planted  a  strong 
park  of  artillery,  resolved   to  make  a   firm   resistance,  and 
check  the  French.     At   sight  of  the  enemies,  general  Bona- 
parte ordered  the  charge  ;   the  order  was  obeyed   ;  the  de- 
structive fire  of  grape  shot  caused  the  French  to  halt  at  the 
bridge,  and  shew  some  disorder  ;  general  Bonaparte  advanc 
ed,  seized  a  standard,    and  exclaimed,   "  follow  your  geno 
ral  :"  the  bridge  and  whole  park  of  artillery  were  carried  ; 
the  Austrians  were  broken,  and  put  to  flight,  and  the  victory 
was  complete.     An  adroitness  of  general  Bonaparte   at  the 
close  of  this  action,  will  serve  to  shew  the  power  of  his  mili- 
tary fame,  and  the  general  panic  of  the  enemy.     General 
Bonaparte  repaired  after  the  action  to  the  village  of  I 
with  1200  of  his  guards,  to  reconnoiter  the  enemy  ;  a  Jjodv 

29 


338  CAMPAIGN    OF    ITALY. 

of  4000  Austrians  which  had  been  severed  from  the  main  ar- 
my, appeared  at  Lonado,  and  summoned  the  place  ;  general 
Bonaparte  returned  for  answer — "  Go  and  tell  your  general 
that  the  commander  of  the  army  of  Italy  is  here,  with  his 
brave  troops  ;  and  that  ,if  he  with  his  division  do  not  lay 
down  their  arms  in  eight  minutes,  he,  with  all  the  general 
officers,  shall  be  responsible  for  the  insult,  and  be  sacrificed 
without  mercy."  The  whole  column  of  4000  surrendered 
immediately.  At  this  time,  his  holiness  alarmed  for  the 
safety  of  the  ecclesiastical  states,  published  an  edict  prohib- 
iting all  maledictions  against  Frenchmen. 

After  the  decisive  action  of  Castiglione,  general  Wurmser 
fell  back  into  Mantua,  and  secured  his  retreat  in  this  strong 
fortress,  which  is  the  great  key  between  Italy  and  the  Tyrol : 
this  movement  prevented  general  Bonaparte  from  penetra- 


mander  in  chief,  summoned  the  governor  of  Mantua  to  sur- 
render— and  received  for  answer  ;  "  July  17. — The  laws  of 
honour  and  duty,  compel  me  to  defend  to  the  last  extremity, 
the  place  entrusted  to  me.  I  have  the  honor,  &c." 

The  general  successes  of  the  armies,  had  excited  through- 
out France  general  energies.  The  government  and  the  na- 
tion had  recovered  a  general  tranquillity  ;  and  the  general  joy 
these  had  diffused,  was  expressed  by  a  grand  celebration  at 
Paris  of  the  memorable  fall  of  Robespierre.  With  the  fall 
of  Robespierre,  fell  the  bloody  sovereignty  ofjacobinism. 

At  this  time  a  division  of  the  French  army  entered  Leg- 
horn, and  seized  property  to  the  amount  of  eight  millions  of 
livers.  Aug.  14. — General  Bonaparte  gained  three  actions 
over  the  Austrians,  at  Coronna,  Montebaldo,  and  Proabolo  ; 
and  pushed  his  victories  to  Roveredo;  These  victories  des- 
troyed, with  a  terrible  carnage,  the  army  sent  to  the  relief  of 
Mantua.  Again,  on  the  16th  6f  September,  he  was  successful 
at  the  action  of  Cavela.  During  the  siege  of  Mantua,  general 
Marmont,  aid-de-camp  to  general  Bonaparte,  was  announced, 
and  presented  to  the  directory  by  the  minister  at  war,  who 
by  an  address 'pronounced  this  eulogy  :  "  Posterity  will 
scarcely  credit  the  evidence  ofhistory,  that  in  one  campaign, 
all  Italy  was  conquered  ;  that  three  armies  were  successive- 
ly destroyed  ;  that  upwards  of  50  stands  of  colours  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  victors  ;  that  40, 000  Austrian^  laid  dowr 
their  arms  ;  in  fine,  that  30,000  Frenchmen,  under  a  general 
of  twenty-five  year*  old,  had  accomplished  all  this." 


CAMPAIGN  OF  ITALY. 


During  these  operations  of  the  armies,  England  sent  lord 
Malrnsbury  to  Paris,  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  French 
arms  by  a  peace  ;  the  negoeiation  failed,  and  he  returned  to 
London,  October  26. 

During  the  memorable  siege  of  Mantua,  the  emperor  o 
Germany  sent  down  two  armies,  to  co-operate  with  the  gar- 
rison for  the  relief  of  Mantua  :  these  were  destroyed  in  the 
battles  last  mentioned.  A  third  army  from  Vienna  now  ap- 
peared, composed  of  recruits  and  volunteers,  all  young  men, 
the  flower  of  Austria.  To  give  spirit,  dignity  and  energy  to 
this  enterprise,  the  empress  presented  one  regiment  of  volun- 
teers with  a  standard,  wrought  with  her  own  hands.  General 
Wurmser  commenced  a  sortie  with  the  garrison,  to  co-ope- 
rate with  this  army  ;  he  was  too  soon,  his  sortie  was  repelled. 
General  Bonaparte  next  turned  his  whole  attention  to  the  ad- 
vancing army  ;  they  were  destroyed  with  a  dreadful  carnage. 
The  king  of  Naples  made  terms  with  the  conqueror  of  Italy, 
and  signed  a  peace.  Mantua  was  now  closely  invested. 

We  will  next  turn  our  attention  to  the  armies  of  the  Rhine, 
Meuse  and  Moselle,  under  the  command  of  generals  Moreau, 
and  Jourdan,  and  opposed  by  the  hero  of  Austria,  prince 
Charles.  On  the  26th  of  June,  general  Moreau  crossed  the 
bridge  at  Strasburg  with  his  army,  took  the  strong  fortress  of 
Kehl,  and  advanced  into  Suabia,  to  meet  prince  Charles.  At 
Renchen  he  gained  a  very  considerable  victory,  and  took 
1200  prisoners  from  the  Austrians,  June  28.  On  the  9th  of 
July,  general  Moreau  defeated  prince  Charles  near  Ettingeri 
in  a  severe  action  :  the  Austrians  retired,  and  the  French  pur- 
sued, and  on  the  18th  advanced  with  rapid  strides  into  the 
heart  of  Germany.  This  alarmed  the  duke  of  Wirtemburg, 
and  brought  him  to  such  terms,  as  occasioned  a  suspension 
of  arms  between  him  and  general  Moreau.  This*  successful 
general  concluded  at  the  same  time  an  armistice  with  the  mar- 
grave of  Baden  ;  continued  to  pursue  prince  Charles,  cros- 
sed the  river  Neckar,  and  made  peace  with  the  circle  of  Sua- 
bia. General  Jourdan  penetrated  into  Germany,  upon  the 
Meuse,  at  the  same  time,  took  the  city  of  Frankfort,  and  levi- 
ed a  contribution  of  six  million  of  livres  in  cash,  and  two  mil- 
lion in  supplies,  July  22.  At  the  same  time  the  strong  fortress 
of  Koenighoffen  surrendered  to  a  division  of  Jourdan's  army, 
commanded  by  general  Lefebre.  August  5,  general  JVToreau 
met  with  a  check  from  prince  Liechtenstein,  near  Kirchein  ; 
this  he  recovered  by  an  attack  upon  Neresheim,  the  Austri- 
ans were  routed,  and  the  French  carried  the  place. 


340  DEFEAT  OF  GEN.  JOURDAN. 

Alarmed  at  these  rapid  strides  of  France  in  Italy  and  Ger- 
many, the  emperor  issued  a  proclamation  to  all  his  subjects, 
to  rplly  round  the  standard  of  their  country,  their  constitu- 
tion, and  the  laws,  and  thus  concluded  :  "Behold  the  still 
smoking  ruins  of  Italy,  the  excesses  and  most  inhuman  cru- 
elties committed  there  !  Behold  the  devastation  which  the 
once  flourishing  territories  of  Germany  have  suffered,  inun- 
dated by  the  armies  of  the  enemies,  and  you  cannot  remain 
dubious  about  the  terrible  fate  which  threatens  every  coun- 
try, and  every  nation,  on  being  invaded  by  such  terrible  ene- 
mies." The  armies  continued  their  operations.  Prince 
Charles  made  a  sudden  movement  and  attacked  ganeral  Jour- 
dan — a  terrible  conflict  ensued  for  fourteen  hours  ;  the  field 
was  disputed  with  such  obstinate  valor  that  the  conflict  ceas- 
ed upon  the  field  of  action,  through  excessive  fatigue  ;  the 
carnage  was  terrible,  both  parties  withdrew.  The  next  day 
general  Moreau  advanced  and  took  possession  of  Nordlingen, 
and  another  severe  action  near  Donawert  compelled  Prince 
Charles  to  retire  and  cross  the  Danube.  General  Jourdan 
advanced  and  took  possession  of  Newark  and  Castel.  The 
Austrians  retired  behind  the  river  Nab. 

Alarmed  again  for  the  fate  of  Germany,  the  emperor  issued 
another  proclamation,  calling  on  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia  to 
enroll  a  militia  for  the  safety  of  that  kingdom.  A  junction 
now  took  place  between  prince  Charles  and  general  Werten- 
sleben — the  prince  availed  himselfof  this  united  force,  attack- 
ed Jourdan,  and  drove  him  from  his  position  on  the  Nab, 
with  the  loss  of  7000  men  ;  this  junction,  and  this  action  open- 
ed an  advantage  to  general  Moreau,  which  he  improved  by  a 
splendid  victory  near  the  Lech,  which  opened  a  passage  for 
the  French  arms  into  the  heart  of  Bavaria  ;  Munich  and 
Augsburg,  were  the  trophies  of  these  victories,  August  23d 
and  24th.  The  elector  of  Bavaria  sued  for  peace.  A  treaty 
of  alliance  offensive  and  defensive,  was  signed  August  29, 
between  France  and  Spain.  Prince  Charles  continued  to 
press  Jourdan,  and  he  retired  behind  the  Mayne,  and  from 
thence  to  Hamelberg,  with  the  loss  of  4000  men.  The  peace 
concluded  this  campaign  in  Germany,  with  the  small  states 
near  the  B,hine,  laid  the  foundation  of  that  league  which  af- 
terwards became  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine. 

This  masterly  stroke  of  Prince  Charles,  in  uniting  with 
Wertensleben  to  overpower  Jourdan,  rendered  the  advance 
•f  Moreau  into  the  heart  of  Bavaria  easy  ;  but  when  a  Sue- 


FALL    OF    MANTUA.  341 

cession  of  victories  over  Jourdnr,  had  weakened  his  force, 
and  compelled  him  to  retire,  general  Moreau  was  left  expos- 
ed :  he  soon  felt  his  critical  situation,  and  attempted  to  ex- 
ricate  himself  by  a  seasonable  retreat ;  in  which  he  acquir- 
ed more  honor,  than  in  his  victorious  advance. 

The  Austrians  pressed  the  French  close  and  severe  ;  and 
iven  the  peasantry  took  up  arms  to  revenge  their  sufferings. 
In  the  midst  of  this  pursuit  in  Suabia,  Moreau  made  a  bold 
ttack  upon  the  advance  guard  of  the  Austrians,  gained  a  de- 
cided advantage,  killed,  and  took  5,000  men,  with  twenty 
>ieces  of  cannon. 

September  2 — Generals  Jourdan  and  Moreau,  continued 
to  retire  before  the  overpowering  force  of  prince  Charles  ; 
re-crossed  the  Rhine,  and  entered  France,  leaving  a  strong 
force  in  the  fortress  ofKehl. 

This  fortress  was  invested  by  prince  Charles,  with  all  the 
irdour  of  a  conqueror,  the  garrison  rnacK  a  desperate  resis- 
mce  :  prince  Charles,  anxious  to  detach  a  part  of  this  victo- 
'ious  army  to  the  relief  of  Mantua,  which  continued  to  be 
;lose  invested  by  general  Bonaparte,  and  impatient  of  every 
loment's  delay,  brought  his  whole  force  to  bear  upon  Kehl  ; 
ind  after  a  resistance  of  forty  days,  under  the  most  desperate 
encounters,  the  prince  carried  Kehl  by  a  general  assault  ; 
and  drew  off  part  of  his  army  to  the  relief  of  Mantua.  The 
same  day,  Mantua  fell  a  conquest  to  the  conqueror  of  Italy, 
ibout  the  1st  of  February,  1797. 


CHAP.  XIV. 

Submission  of  the  Pope — triumphs  of  the  campaign — treaty  of 
Campo  Formio — armament  of  Toulon — capture  of  Malta 
— battle  of  the  Nile — conquest  of  Egypt — defeat  at  Acre — 
general  Bonaparte  returns  to  Egypt — to  France — new  con- 
lit  ion. 

WITH  the  fall  ofKehl  and  Mantua,  the  illustrious  and  splen- 
did campaign  of  1796,  closed  generally.  On  the  17th  of  No- 
vember,'died  Catherine  II.  empress  of  Russia  :  and  the  great 
duke  Paul,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  After  the  foil  of  Man- 
tua, all  further  resistance  on  the  part  of  Austria,  ceased  in  Ita- 
ly ;  and  general  Bonaparte  advanced  into  the  states  of  the 
29* 


342  SUCCESS    OF    THE    WAR. 

pope  under  a  fruitless  resistance,  and  threatened  Rome.  Hi? 
holiness  addressed  an  affectionate  letter  to  general  Bonaparte* 
under  the  tender  appellation  of  My  dear  son,  and  by  his  en- 
voys sued  for  peace  :  to  which  the  general  replied,  with  the 
respectful  appellation  of  Holy  father,  settled  a  peace,  and  re- 
tired into  the  Tyrol,  to  meet  prince  Charles  ;  a  terrible  ac- 
tion ensued — general  Bonaparte  was  victorious,  and  prince 
Charles  retreated  with  precipitation  into  the  heart  of  Austria, 

The  emperor  took  the  alarm,  and  sued  for  peace  ;  a  truce 
of  six  days  was  granted  by  general  Bonaparte  ;  a  conference 
was  opened,  the  preliminaries  drawn,  and  the  peace  of  Cam- 
po  Formio,  guaranteed  to  France  all  her  conquests  in  Italy. 

At  this  time  a  general  sketch  of  the  successes  of  the  war, 
was  published  at  Paris,  stating,  "  that  from  the  8th  of  Febru- 
ary, 1793,  to  the  19th  of  February,  1797— France  had  gain- 
ed 261  victories,  including  31  pitched  battles  ;  killed  152,000 
of  the  enemy  ;  taken  197,784  prisoners,  288  strong  places, 
319  forts,  camps,  or  redoubts,  7,965  pieces  of  cannon,  187, 
-762  guns,  4,318,150  pounds  of  powder,  207  standards,  5,486 
horses,"  &c.  &c.  This  treaty  stipulated  with  the  emperor 
of  Germany  for  the  release  of  the  marquis  La  Fayette  from 
the  prison  of  Olmutz  ;  and  the  marquis,  with  his  wife  and 
daughter  returned  into  France.  Lord  Malmsbury  was  sent, 
the  30th  of  June,  by  the  English  court  to  negotiate  a  peace 
at  Lisle,  and  returned  the  1st  of  September  without  effect- 
ing his  purpose. 

At  this  time,  the  republic  of  Genoa  was  united  to  France, 
under  the  name  of  the  Ligurian  republic.  The  young  hero 
of  Italy  now  returned  in  triumph  to  France,  November  24, 
1797,  after  having  accomplished  in  one  campaign  what  Lewis 
the  XL  Charles  VIII.  Lewis  XII.  Francis  I.  Charles  IX.  Hen- 
ry IV.  Lewis  XIV.  and  XV.  kings  of  France,  had  each  in  his 
reign  attempted  to  accomplish,  at  the  expense  of  the  best 
blood  and  treasures  of  France,  but  without  success.  This 
young  hero  was  not  only  "  older  when  he  came  back,"  but 
was  illustrious  in  arms  ;  the  trump  of  fame  had  proclaimed  the 
successes  of  this  ever  memorable  campaign  to  France,  to  Eu- 
rope, and  to  the  world.  Alarmed  at  the  triumphant  popular- 
ity of  the  conqueror  of  Italy,  upon  his  return  into  France,  the 
directory  began  to  tremble  in  their  seats,  and  to  provide  for 
their  safety  ;  this  thej^  soon  found  in  their  fleet  in  Toulon. 

The  directory  assembled  and  equipped  this  fleet,  with  all 
possible  expedition,  consisting  of  17  ships  of  the  line,  and 


BATTLE    OF    ABOUKIR. 


343 


15,000  men,  destined  for  a  secret  expedition  upon  foreign 
service,  and  gave  the  command  to  general  Bonaparte.  On 
the  9th  of  April,  1798,  general  Bonaparte  left  Paris,  and  re- 
paired to  Toulon  to  take  the  command  of  this  armament  ;  and 
on  the  19th  set  sail.  This  fleet  was  watched  hy  an  English 
fleet  of  an  equal  force,  under  the  command  of  Lord  Nelson, 
off  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  to  intercept  their  passage  to  Ire- 
"  ind,  should  they  attempt  it,  as  was  then  contemplated. 

Upon  the  first  tidings  of  the  sailing  of  the  Toulon  fleet,  his 
lordship  pursued  up  the  Mediterranean,  and  at  Malta  learnt 
the  fate  of  that  Island,  which  the  French  had  taken  in  their 
passage.  He  next  sailed  to  the  coast  of  Egypt,  and  recon- 
noitered  the  bay  of  Aboukir.  Not  finding  the  French  fleet, 
he  sailed  to  the  coast  of  Syria.  '  Not  finding  the  French  upon 
this  coast,  he  returned  to  Egypt ;  and  to  his.great  joy  discov- 
ered the  fleet  in  the  bay  of  Aboukir,  anchored  close  under 
the  forts  and  batteries  of  the  harbor,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent, 
at  the  distance  of  about  one  cable's  length  from  each  other, 
with  the  Le  Orient,  admiral  Brueyes,  in  the  centre. 

During  his  lordship's  passage  to,  and  return  from  Syria, 
the  French  fleet  had  arrived,  anchored  in  the  bay,  and  land- 
ed the  general  with  his  army,  &c.  His  lordship,  on  the  af- 
ternoon of  the  1st  of  August,  upon  his  first  arrival,  gave  signal 
for  an  immediate  attack  ;  in  the  following  order  : — The  fleet 
to  advance  in  two  divisions  ;  the  first  to  pass  within  the 
French,  between  their  fleet  and  the  land  ;  the  second  division 
to  pass  without  their  fleet  ;  the  two  van  ships  to  engage  the 
Le  Orient  in  the  centre  of  the  French  line,  the  others  to  en- 
gage the  ships  of  the  French,  lying  between  them.  The  sig- 
nal was  obeyed  without  any  other  accident,  than  the  ground- 
ing of  the  Culloden,  in  the  first  attempt  to  pass  between  the 
French  and  the  land  :  this  ship  served  as  a  guide  to  the  rest 
of  the  division,  and  had  no  share  in  the  action. 

In  this  position  of  the  two  fleets,  the  action  commenced  ; 
the  conflict  was  terrible  ;  the  French  made  a  desperate  re- 
sistance ;  but  before  the  half  of  their  fleet  which  were  not  en- 
gaged, could  slip  their  cables,  and  come  into  action,  the  Le 
Orient  took  fire,  and  blew  up,  with  an  explosion  which  shook 
the  deep  to  its  centre,  and  filled  the  dark  vault  of  heaven 
with  its  blaze.  The  rest  ofthe  fleet  engaged,  were  silenced 
and  taken  ;  and  the  half  which  were  not  engaged,  were  all 
taken  in  the  bay,  except  two — these  were  afteawards  taken 
at  sea.  Thus  fell  at  one  fatal  blow  the  vast  armament  of  Ton- 


344  DEFEAT    AT    ACRE. 

Ion.  Not  so  the  general — he  with  his  army  were  upon  the 
heights  of  Alexandria,  witnessing  the  destruction  of  his  fleet, 
in  the  midst  of  a  cannonade  whose  flashing  thunders,  like  the 
bursting  of  _4£tna,  filled  with  awe  the  solemnity  of  the  night 
scene,  and  diffused  terror  and  distress  through  the  horrors 
of  the  gloom. 

General  Bonaparte  planted  his  eagles,  without  opposition, 
upon  the  walls  of  Alexandria  ;  from  thence,'  by  easy  marches 
he  penetrated  to  Cairo,  which,  in  its  turn,  fell  an  easy  con- 
quest. The  resistance  of  the  beys  was  feeble  ;  the  conquer- 
or brought  them  into  subjection  by  an  artful  policy,  flattering 
some,  encouraging  others  in  their  party  quarrels,  and  subdu- 
ing the  obstinate  by  force.  By  these  means,  he  soon  placed 
himself  at  their  head,  as  a  conqueror,  and  at  Grand  Cairo  he 
settled  the  government,  and  gave  l£w  to  Egypt.  General 
Bonaparte  left  a  small  force  to  protect  his  new  government, 
and  marched  his  army  into  Syria,  to  plant  his  eagles  at  Je- 
rusalem, and  give  law  to  that  country. 

His  march  was  rapid  and  unmolested,  until  he  appeared 
before  the  commanding  city  of  St.  Jean  de  Acre,  (a  seaport  of 
Syria  ;)  it  became  absolutely  necessary  to  conquer  this  place 
before  he  could  accomplish  his  plan.  He  set  down  before 
the  city,  opened  his  trenches,  and  began  the  attack  ;  upon 
the  first  appearance  of  a  breach,  he  ordered  an  assault — the 
attempt  was  made,  but  the  desperate  resistance  of  the  be- 
sieged, added  to  a  galling  fire  from  the  small  squadron  of  Sir 
Sidney  Smith,  (which  raked  the  French  from  the  bay  as  they 
advanced  to  the  charge,)  obliged  the  columns  to  retire  ;  gen- 
eral Bonaparte  ordered  the  charge  to  be  renewed — the 
French  advanced  with  great  firmness  and  impetuosity,  the 
conflict  was  terrible  ;  the  trenches  before  the  city  were  filled 
with  heaps  of  slain  ;  the  resistance  was  desperate  ;  the 
French  retired  ;  and  night  closed  the  awful  conflict.  The 
next  day,  the  general  ordered  the  assault  to  be  renewed  ;  the 
issue  became  the  same.  Stung  with  chagrin  at  the  repulse 
of  his  invincible'legions,  and  fired  with  indignation  at  the  ob- 
stinate resistance,  he  ordered  the  assault  to  be  renewed  :  his 
army,  exhausted  with  the  fatigues  and  distresses  of  the  con- 
flict, and  shocked  with  the  horrid  stench  of  their  comrades, 
who  lay  in  heaps  in  the  trenches,  (now  become  putrid  by  the 
heat  of  the  climate,)  and  over  whom  they  had  to  march  to  the 
assault^  began  to  hesitate  ;  and  one  regiment  dared  to  disobey 
the  order. 

Struck  with  astonishment  at  the  bold  refusal,  and  fearing  a 


GEN.  BONAPARTE  RETURNS.  346 

general  revolt,  the  hero  of  Italy,  and  conqueror  of  Egypt, 
abandoned  his  enterprise  ;  beat  a  retreat ,  led  back  his  army 
into  Egypt,  and  returned  to  Cairo.  Here  he  gave  a  grand 
fete  in  honor  of  the  conquest  of  Syria,  and  inflicted  a  severe 
punishment  upon  the  regiment  which  disobeyed  at  Acre,  by 
causing  them  to  march  in  review,  with  their  arms  reversed, 
and  slung  behind  their  backs.  This  severity  of  punishment, 
settled  again  the  discipline  of  his  army. 

General  Bonaparte  settled  the  government  of  Egypt,  and 
proceeded  to  Alexandria,  where  he  ordered  a  frigate  to  be  in 
readiness  to  attend  him,  wrote,  and  delivered  a  sealed  letter- 
to  general  Kleber,  selected  his  favorite  general  Berthier, 
embarked  on  board  the  frigate,  and  set  sail  for  France. 

When  the  time  had  expired  for  general  Kleber  to  open  his 
letter,  he  found  to  his  astonishment,  that  the  general  had 
abandoned  his  army,  returned  to  France,  and  appointed  him 
his  successor  in  the  army  of  E^pt.  General  Kleber  shewed 
to  the  general  officers  his  new  commission,  and  assumed  the 
command  in  general  orders. 

Gen.  Bonaparte,  after  several  hair-breadth  escapes  from 
the  English  cruizers,  arrived  in  France;  landed  near  the 
place  where  he  had  embarked  the  preceding  year,  and  re- 
paired directly  to  Paris.  .Here  he  was  hailed  as  the  deliver- 
er of  France. 

During  his  absence,  new  scenes  had  been  opened  ;  new  and 
distressing  events  had  occurred.  The  arms  of  France  had 
been  weakened,  her  resources  had  declined,  the  confidence 
and  energies  of  the  nation  had  sunk,  the  government  was  en- 
feebled, and  the  constitution  almost  a  cypher.  France,  in 
his  absence,  fitted  out  the  Brest  fleet,  with  troops,  to  assist 
the  insurgents  in  Ireland  ;  they  were  taken  and  destroyed  by 
the  English  on  their  passage,  and  the  expedition  failed. 

A  new  coalition  was  formed  December  18,  1798,  between 
England,  Russia  and  Austria,  to  co-operate  in  the  war  against 
France.  Old  field  mareschal  Suwarrow  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Russinn  and  Austrian  army,  destined  to 
the  conquest  of  Italy.  This  army  was  to  be  paid  by  England 
and  Austria. 


CHAP.  XV. 

General  Suwarrow  enters  Italy — battle  of  Switzerland — mr«- 


346 


JDEFEAT    OF    GEN.    SUWARROW. 


sion  of  Holland — General  Bonaparte  first  consul — battle  of 
Marengo — infernal  machine — northern  armed  neutrality — 
peace  of  Luneville — war  between  Spain  and  Portugal — bat- 
tle of  Copenhagen. 

GENERAL  Suwarrovv  entered  Italy  by  the  way  of  the  Ty- 
rol. The  city  of  Mantua  fell  an  easy  conquest  ;  together 
with  the  other  cities  of  Italy,  taken  hy  general  Bonaparte, 
and  the  French  generals  McDonald,  Angereau  and  others,  re- 
tired before  the  conqueror.  At  this  time  the  war  raged  gen- 
erally ;  general  Jourc^an  crossed  the  Rhine  and  took  Manheirn, 
March  2,  1799.  General  Bonaparte  was  then  in  Syria.  Gen- 
eral Massena  was  stationed  in  Switzerland,  where  he  was 
watched  by  prince  Charles  upon  the  Rhine,  and  another  Aus- 
trian army  which  lay  towards  Vienna.  Suwarrow  in  his 
march,  took  possession  of  all  the  cities  and  strong  holds  in 
Italy,  in  the  name  of  the  ei^peror  of  Russia  :  this  excited 
jealousy  and  distrust  in  the  coalition.  England  checked  her 
supplies,  Austria  grew  cold  ;  prince  Charles  neglectedthe  ne- 
cjessary  arrangements,  to  form  a  necessary  co-operation. 

As  Suwarrow  approached  Switzerland,  to  attack  Massena, 
the  French  general  anticipated  his  movements,  commenced 
a  desperate  attack  upon  the  Austrian  army  which  watched 
him  on  the  side  of  Vienna,  routed  and  destroyed  it,  before 
Suwarrow  could  pass  the  mountains  and  afford  assistance. 
He  then  by  a  sudden  movement  fell  upon  Suwarrow  with  his 
victorious  troops  ;  the  conflict  was  short,  but  terrible  ;  Su- 
warrow was  beaten,  obliged  to  take  advantage  of  the  moun- 
tains, file  off  into  Germany,  and  secure  his  retreat.  Here  he 
proposed  to  form  a  junction  with  prince  Charles,  who  refus- 
ed. 

This  old  hero  of  the  north,  this  champion  over  the  Turks, 
this  conqueror  of  Warsaw  and  of  Italy,  was  recalled  by  his 
master,  banished  the  court,  and  died  in  disgrace.  Massena 
held  his  strong  position  in  Switzerland.  The  Austrian  army 
in  Italy  advanced  and  laid  siege  to  Genoa  ;  the  English  in 
co-operation  with  Russia  made  a  descent  upon  Holland,  and 
took  and  carried  off  the  Dutch  fleet,  September  1  ;  at  the 
same  time  they  landed  a  strong  force  under  the  command 
of  the  duke  of  York,  and  attempted  the  conquest  of  Hol- 
land. This  opened  a  new  scene — the  Dutch  and  French 
united  their  forces,  and,  by  a  succession  of  victories,  the 
duka  of  York,  with  his  English  and  Russian  army,  were  com- 
pelled to  sign  a  convention,  and  resign  up  the  Dutch  fleet 


BATTLE    OF    MARENGO.  347 

'which  they  had  carried  off  a  few  months  before)  as  a  pledge 
for  the  safe  embarkation  of  their  army.  This  convention  was 
the  second  volume  of  the  old  convention  of  Closter-seven  in 
Hanover,  in  the  old  seven  years  war. 

In  the  midst  ofvthese  events,  general  Bonaparte  arrived  at 
Paris  ;  by  the  efforts  of  his  friends  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  small  military  force,  appeared  at  the  hall  of  the  national 
council,  entered  with  his  sword  drawn,  and  at  the  point  of  the 
bayonet  dissolved  their  sitting  and  power,  locked  up  the  hall, 
took  the  key,  and  retired  Sieyes  and  others  of  the  directo- 
ry were  in  the  secret— they  immediately  framed  a  new  con- 
stitution, after  the  form  of  the  old  Roman  consular  govern- 
ment, with  three  consuls,  a  senate,  &c.  and  general  Bona- 
parte was  elected  first  consul  for  ten  years,  December  13, 
1799.  During  the  operations  in  Holland,  the  English  seized 
on  the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  Roman  States  in  Italy.  The 
consul  addressed  a  letter  to  the  king  of  England  on  the  sub- 
ject of  peace,  and  at  the  same  time  assembled  an  army  of  re- 
serve at  Dijon  ;  organized  the  government,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  army  of  Dijon,  crossed  the  Alps,  and  appeared 
on  the  plains  of  Italy,  before  the  Austrian  general  (who  was 
pressing  the  siege  of  Genoa)  had  knowledge  of  his  move- 
ments. Placed  between  two  fires,  he  raised  the  siege  and 
retired  to  meet  the  consul,  who  awaited  him  on  the  plains  of 
Marengo  :  here  the  conflict  which  was  to  decide  the  fate  of 
Italy  commenced  in  the  morning  ;  the  Austrians  advanced 
on  to  the  plain,  the  consul  retired  and  took  his  position  in  a 
strong  defile,  in  a  pass  of  the  mountains  :  the  conflict  was 
desperate,  the  consul  resisted  the  impetuosity  of  the  Austrian 
attacks,  until  a  column  of  fresh  troops,  (^posted  by  design  fif- 
teen miles  distant)  were  conveyed  in  waggons  to  the  scene  of 
action  ;  this  column,  with  their  brave  general  Dessaix  at  their 
head,  entered  the  pass,  and  rushed  like  a  torrent  upon  the 
plain,  overwhelming  all  opposition  ;  the  conflict  was  short, 
the  carnage  terrible,  and  the  gallant  Dessaix  crowned  with 
his  death  the  victory  of  Marengo.  This  action  was  of  itself 
a  campaign  ;  the  army  of  Austria  was  destroyed,  her  power 
in  Italy  subdued,  and  all  Italy  recovered  to  France.  The 
consul,  by  a  rapid  movement,  entpred  Milan  without  opposi- 
tion and  enjoyed  the  triumph.  Jnne  4th. — He  dispersed  the 
remnant  of  the  Austrians  at  Montebello,  and  se'ttled  an  armis- 
tice for  Italy,  June  10th,  and  established  the  Cisalpine 
Republic.  The  movements  on  the  Rhine,  had  been  stayed 
during  these  important  movements  of  the  con.-ul. 


348  CONVENTION    OF    LUNEVILLE. 

On  the  18th  of  July,  Gen.  Moreau  gained  an  important  vic- 
tory over  the  Austrians  at  Blenheim,  and  again  at  Newhurg  on 
the  28th  ;  these  successes  were  followed  by  preliminaries  of 
peace,  which  were  signed  at  Paris,  July  28,  1800. 

Paul,  emperor  of  Russia,  made  the  first  motion  for  a  con- 
vention, for  an  armed  neutrality  which  was  acceded  to  by 
all  the  northern  powers,  Dec.  24. 

At  this  time  an  attempt  was  made  upon  the  life  of  the  1st 
Consul  by  the  infernal  machine  (so  called)  as  he  rode  to  the 
theatre  ;  this  machine  was  about  the  size  of  a  barrel,  filled 
with  gunpowder,  spikes,  bullets,  &c.  with  a  machinery  to 
strike  fire  for  an  explosion,  like  the  torpedo,  which  could  be 
regulated  for  anygparticular  time.  This  machine  was  placed 
in  the  way  of  the  Consul  where  his  carriage  would  pass  that 
evening  to  the  opera,  and  the  explosion  took  effect,  directly 
after  the  Consul  had  passed  ;  the  shock  and  alarm  were  great, 
some  of  the  materials  were  thrown  over  the  tops  of  houses, 
but  no  essential  damage  was  done.  The  Consul  passed  on  to 
the  opera,  without  regarding  the  event,  staid  the  usual  time, 
and  retired. 

Notwithstanding  the  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  be- 
tween France  and  Austria,  the  French  pushed  their  advances 
in  Italy  and  Germany ;  they  seized  on  Tuscany,  and  met 
with  a  check  in  Italy  which  occasioned  the  armistice  of  Tre- 
viso.  They  penetrated  on  the  Danube  near  to  Vienna, 
which  caused  the  convention  of  Luneville  between  Austria 
and  France,  Jan.  28,  1801.  The  definitive  treaty  was  sign- 
ed Feb.  23. 

On  the  1st  of  January,  1801,  the  English  assembled  a  fleet 
at  St.  Marmorice,  fo'rthe  purpose  of  conquering  Egypt — the 
command  of  this  armament  was  given  to  Lord  Keith,  and  he 
set  sail  on  the  27th  of  February  ;  all  Egypt  was  subdued  in 
one  campaign  ;  the  French  army  taken  by  capitulation,  and 
sent  back  to  Prance,  and  Egypt  was  restored  to  the  Turks, 
May,  1803.  At  this  time  Spain  proclaimed  war  against  Por- 
tugal, which  was  settled  in  one  month  b}^  the  treaty  of  Bada- 
jos.  A  new  convention  was  now  effected  between  England 
and  Russia,  and  the  preliminaries  of  a  general  peace  were 
signed  at  London,  Oct.  1 ,  1801.  The  storm  of  war  was  now 
hushed  throughout  the  world,  for  the  first  time  since  the  year 
1793. 

The  northern  confederacy  in  1800,  which  supported  their 
armed  neutrality,  gave  a  general  alarm  in  England  ;  they 
remembered  the  depredations  which  formerly  ravaged  their 


BATTLE    OF  COPENHAGEN. 

island,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Baltic,  and  they  were  jealous 
of  this  confederacy,  and  resolved  to  suppress  it.  The  Eng- 
lish laid  an  embargo  upon  all  the  ships  and  vessels  of  Russia. 
Denmark  and  Sweden  ;  and  dispatched  a  fleet,  under  the  com- 
mand of  lord  Nelson,  to  attack  the  Danish  fleet  in  the  har- 
bor of  Copenhagen,  Aug.  1801.  The  Danes  collected  their 
whole  fleet,  to  the  number  of  twenty-eight  sail  of  the  line^ 
under  cover  of  their  forts  and  batteries  ;  they  also  construc- 
ted a  number  of  floating  batteries  for  the  occasion,  and  put 
their  harbor  in  the  best  possible  state  of  defence.  Lord 
Nelson  entered  the  Baltic  sound,  and  with  great  labor,  warp- 
ed his  fleet  through  the  passage,  where  a  fleet  had  never 
passed  before,  and  by  this  means,  entered  the  harbour  of 
Copenhagen  with  a  fair  wind.  The  Danes  were  prepared, 
and  the  action  commenced  :  here  the  thunders  of  Aboukir 
were  renewed  ;  the  attack  was  fierce  and  terrible — the  re- 
resistance  firm,  desperate  and  bloody.  The  carnage  on 
board  the  batteries  was  so  great,  that  they  were  repeatedly 
manned  from  the  shores,  with  fresh  troops.  The  cannonade 
from  the  fleets,  the  batteries,  the  forts  and  the  shores,  was 
awfully  sublime  ;  their  thunders  shook  the  land,  the  ocean 
and  the  heavens  :  the  fleets  swam  in  blood  :  the  Danes  were 
subdued  ;  and  awful  was  the  scene  of  silence,  solemnity  and 
gloom  that  ensued.  His  lordship  landed  in  person,  attended 
the  king,  settled  a  peace,  and  conducted  the  shattered  remains 
of  the  Danish  fleet  in  triumph  to  England.  This  peace  se- 
vered the  northern  confederacy,  and  brought  Russia  into  an 
alliance  against  France. 


CHAP.  XVI. 

Revolution  in  St.  Domingo — character  of  the  Black  Chiefs — 
conquest  of  Hanover— first  Consul  chosen  for  life — made  em- 
peror of  France — Austrian  war — -fall  of  Vienna — battle  of 
Austerlitz — peace  with  Austria— war  between  England  and 
Spain. 

A  general  joy  was  diffused  throughout  Europe  and  America. 
This  however  was  of  short  continuance — the  rage  of  liberty 
and  equality  in  France,  early  in  the  revolution,  had  abolished 
slavery  in  all  the  French  West-India  Islands  ;  a  violent  revolu- 
tion of  liberty  and  equality  commenced  immediately  at  St.  Do- 

30 


350 


WAR  OF  ST.  DOMINGO. 


mingo,  which  raged  with  all  the  horrors  of  rapine,  murders, 
massarces  and  confiscation  ;  the  beautiful  town  of  Cape  Fran- 
cois was  in  ruins,  and  the  blacks  in  arms  ;  the  whites  and  peo- 
ple of  colour  were  the  victims  of  their  rage.  The  consul  em- 
braced this  calm  to  check  this  violence  in  the  colonies — he 
had  lost  the  confidence  of  the  army  of  Egypt,  by  deserting 
them,  and  he  could  place  no  confidence  in  an  army  who  in 
his  absence  had  murdered  their  general,  (Kleber  ;)  he  appoint- 
ed Gen.  Le  Clerc  to  the  command,  and  sent  out  this  army  of 
Egypt  to  subdue  the  rebel  blacks  in  St.  Domingo.  The  blacks 
made  a  desperate  resistance — the  horrors  of  St.  Domingo  ex- 
ceeded the  horrors  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  the  swords  of  the 
blacks,  together  with  the  fatal  West-India  climate,  ruined  and 
destroyed  the  whole  of  this  army  ;  the  blacks  maintained 
their  liberty,  and  established  the  kingdom  of  Hayti,  1 802.  In 
the  Island  of  St.  Domingo,  African  slavery  first  commenced, 
and  here  they  first  obtained  their  liberty,  and  established  an 
independent  government. 

During  this  revolution  in  St.  Domingo,  appeared  Tousant, 
Christophe,  and  other  Chiefs,  who  possessed  strong  minds, 
great  dignity,  firmness,  and  strength  of  character,  with  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  men  and  things,  joined  to  a  correct  knowl- 
edge of  the  military  art.  They  made  a  figure  at  the  head  of 
their  armies,  which  commanded  obedience  and  respect ;  their 
troops  were  regularly  formed  and  disciplined,  their  cause  was 
the  cause  of  liberty,  and  they  defended  it  with  desperate  val- 
our, and  rose  superior  to  French  tactics,  discipline  and  in- 
trigue. When  they  had  organized  and  established  their 
government,  there  appeared  at  the  head  of  it,  and  of  the  sev- 
eral departments,  a  description  of  characters,  fully  competent 
to  the  duties  of  their  stations,  and  the  government  was,  and 
continues  to  be  administered,  with  energy,  wisdom,  firmness 
and  dignity  ;  commerce  and  the  plantations  flourish,  and  the 
government,  and  the  laws  are  respected  in  the  kingdom  of 
Hayti. 

The  peace  of  Europe  remained  undisturbed  until  June  7, 
1803.  At  this  time,  England,  alarmed  at  the  growing  power 
of  the  French,  declared  war.  The  consul  had  been  consti- 
tuted consul  for  ten  years  more,  after  the  first  term  often 
years  should  expire,  and  afterwards  had  been  elected  consul 
for  life,  by  a  subscriptive  vote  of  more  than  three  million  of 
citizens  ;  and  his  military  preparations  had  excited  a  general 
alarm  in  Europe,  particularly  in  England,  on  account  of  the 


CAPTURE    OF    HANOYER.  351 

hostile  movements  upon  the  French  coast.  The  English  had 
evacuated  Egypt,  the  16th  of  May,  and  called  home  their 
fleet  and  troops,  for  the  defence  of  their  island.  The  con. 
sul  announced  to  the  nation,  that  England  had  declared  war  ; 
and  made  great  preparations  upon  the  coast,  for  the  invasion 
of  England  ;  sent  a  strong  military  force  into  the  west  of  Ger- 
many, and  seized  on  Hanover,  the  hereditary  dominions  of 
George  III.  king  of  England,  June,  1803.  The  spirit  of  the 
French  nation  was  high,  at  this  time  :  the  invasion  of  England 
with  delenda  est  (Carthago.,  Carthage  must  be  destroyed,)  be- 
came the  order  of  the  day  ;  boats,  gallies  and  small  craft, 
were  built  and  collected  from  all  the  ports  of  France  and 
Holland,  and  assembled  at  Boulogne  ;  soldiers  were  trained 
daily,  in  the  order  of  embarking  and  disembarking  ;  a  gener- 
al alarm  prevailed  in  England,  and  the  consul  reigned  in  the 
hearts  of  the  French  people.  The  licentiousness  of  liberty 
had  been  checked  in  some  degree  by  a  decree  of  the  direct- 
ory, prohibiting  the  circulation  of  foreign  newspapers  ia 
France,  in  1 797.  This  check  had  been  improved  by  the  first 
consul,  in  suppressing  the  licentiousness  ofthe  prees,  and  con- 
fining the  publications  to  licensed  papers  only.  This  led  to 
an  anecdote,  which  may  serve  to  mark  the  difference  of  char- 
acters, and  difference  ofthe  times,  in  France.  When  the 
marquis  La  Fayette  (who  had  been  released  by  Gen.  Bona- 
parte, at  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio,  from  the  dungeon  of 
Olmutz,)  was  called  upon  to  give  his  subscriptive  vote  to  the 
first  consul,  as  consul  for  life,  he  addressed  this  note  to  the 
consul  :— "  The  marquis  La  Fayette  presents  his  compliments 
to  Gen.  Bonparte,  and  will  most  cheerfully  give  him  his  vote 
as  first  consul  for  life,  provided  he  will  restore  freedom  of 
speech,  andfreedom  of  the  press  to  the  French  people."  The 
consul  returned  this  reply  : —  "Gen.  Bonaparte  returns  his 
compliments  to  the  marquis  La  Fayette,  and  assures  him, 
that  should  he  comply  with  his  wishes,  neither  the  marquis 
La  Fayette,  nor  general  Bonaparte,  would  be  in  France  in 
six  months."  This  difference  of  character  caused  the  differ- 
ence in  in  the  affairs  of  France,  and  gave  her  atthis  time,  the 
power  of  distressing  her  ancient  rival. 

The  consul  signified  to  the  marquis  La  Fayette,  that  ho 
might  retire  upon  one  of  his  estates,  remote  from  Paris  :  the 
marquis  withdrew.  Jealousy,  distrust  and  apprehension  pre- 
vailed throughout  England  ;  parties  ran  high  in  the  cabinet  ; 
the  government  and  the  nation  were  alive  to  their  common 


352  EMPEROR   NAPOLEOtf. 

safety  ;  and  the  military  kept  the  peace.  Austria  alarmed 
for  the  safety  of  Europe,  joined  a  new  confederacy  against 
France,  to  give  a  check  to  the  movements  against  England. 
She  assembled  a  powerful  force  in  Suabia,  upon  the  Danube, 
under  general  Mac,  who  took  up  his  head-quarters  at  the 
strong  and  commanding  position  of  Ulm. 

The  English  were  successful  in  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
and  took  the  island  of  Demerara.  The  consul  caused  gene- 
rals Pichegru  and  Moreau  to  be  arrested  in  Paris  :  Pichegru 
died  in  his  prison,  and  Moreau  was  banished,  and  fled  to  A- 
merica,  where  he  remained  until  1813. 

This  year  the  emperor  of  Russia,  Alexander,  (who  had  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  upon  the  death  of  his  father  Paul)  made 
great  movements  to  co-operate  with  England  and  Austria 
against  France.  Anew  revolution  took  place  in  the  French 
government,  and  an  imperial  government  was  established 
May  5  ;  the  consul  was  vested  with  the  imperial  dignity,  and 
erownedby  the  pope  at  P  ris,  at  the  almost  unanimous  voice 
of  the  nation  August  11,  1804.  The  emperor  continued 
his  operations  upon  the  coast,  and  the  invasion  of  England 
became  every  day  more  popular^in  France,  and  more  alarming 
in  England,  which  increased  the  preparations  for  defence  and 
security.  During  these  operations,  the  emperor  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  army  of  England  (so  called,)  and  by  a  sud- 
den movement  passed  the  bridge  of  Strasburg,  and  appeared 
in  Suabia,  before  Ulm,  October,  1 805.  The  same  rapid  move- 
ments which  brought  him  before  this  city,  obliged  general 
Mac  to  abandon  it,  almost  without  resistance,  and  led  the 
French  soldiers  to  say — "  Our  emperor  makes  us  use  our 
legs,  if  we  donotuse  our  muskets."  Gen.  Mac  retired  down 
the  Danube  ;  the  emperor  pursued  by  forced  marches,  pen- 
etrated to  Vienna,  took  it  November  14,  left  a  garrison,  and 
filed  off  with  his  army  into  Moravia  to  meet  the  emperor 
Alexander,  with  his  Russian  army.  The  two  young  empe- 
rors lay  in  sight  of  each  other  several  days,  when  the  empe- 
ror Napoleon  made  a  sudden  retrograde  movement  :  this 
deceived  the  emperor  Alexander,  who  suspected  his  enemy 
was  about  to  make  his  escape. 

The  emperor  Napoleon  retired  several  miles,  and  made  a 
halt  upon  an  eminence  at  Austerlitz,  to  observe  the  motions  of 
his  enemy.  The  emperor  Alexander  put  his  army  in  motion  to 
pursue  ;  and  in  order  to  intercept  his  retreat,  he  detached  a  di- 
vision of  his  array,  with  orders  to  gain  the  rear  of  the  emperor 


BATTLE    OF    AUSTERLITZ.  353 

Napoleon  :  such  a  movement  on  the  part  of  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia, towards  old  mareschal  Daun  in  Silesia,  proved  fatal  to  the 
enterprize.  Napoleon  saw  the  result — he  had  caught  Alex- 
ander in  the  trap  he  had  set  for  him,  and  exclaimed,  "  They 
will  all  be  given  into  my  hands  before  night."  He  ordered 
a  charge  to  be  made  upon  the  detached  division  :  the  onset 
was  violent ;  they  were  overthrown  with  great  slaughter  ;  put 
to  the  sword,  or  driven  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  into  a 
neighbouring  lake,  where  they  almost  all  perished.  A  general 
charge  was  then  made  on  the  main  body  of  the  Russian  ar- 
my ;  the  conflict  was  short,  the  carnage  was  great,  and  the 
victory  decisive,  Dec.  2,  1805.  The  emperors  drew  off  their 
armies,  settled  a  peace,  and  the  Emperor  Alexander  returned 
with  his  shattered  army  into  Russia.  The  emperor  Napole- 
on returned  to  Vienna,  settled  a  peace  with  the  emperor, 
which  stripped  him  of  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany, 
and  of  his  dominions  in  the  Tyrol,  (these  were  added  to 
Italy)  and  left  him  only  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria. — 
This  blow  severed  the  union  of  the  Germanic  body,  and  left 
them  without  a  head.  The  emperor  Napoleon  then  led  back 
his  victorious  army  in  triumph  into  France,  again  posted 
them  on  the  seaboard,  and  retired  to  his  palace. 

The  invasion  of  England  was  again  renewed  ;  the  success- 
es of  the  last  year,  had  kindled  anew  the  zeal  and  ardor  of 
the  nation,  and  the  disasters  of  the  allies,  had  as  greatly  de- 
pressed the  English  nation  ;  all  was  anxiety  and  alarm. 

Thus  Napoleon,  under  the  imperial  crown,  in  one  cam- 
paign, triumphed  over  the  grand  coalition,  in  the  capital  of 
Austria  ;  triumphed  over  the  emperor  of  Russia  in  the  fa- 
mous battle  and  peace  of  Austerlitz  ;  triumphed  over  the 
Germanic  body,  by  deposing  their  head  ;  and  over  the  house 
of  Austria,  by  annexing  the  country  of  the  Tyrol,  to  the 
conquests  of  France  in  Italy ;  and  made  his  enemies  sup- 
port the  Avar.  The  ea«y  access  of  Ulm,  was  the  first  fruit? 
of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  which  commenced  as  ear- 
ly as  August  1796.  The  object  of  this  confederation  was  to 
withdraw  the  small  states  near  the  Rhine  from  the  contest  be- 
tween the  great  rival  powers,  and  prevent  their  becoming 
the  perpetual  theatre  of  war. 

The  emperor  Napoleon,  by  his  powerful  forces  upon  the 
coast,  overawed  the  republic  of  Holland  ;  changed  their  con- 
stitution, placed  at  their  head  a  tool  of  his  own,  linger  the  ti- 
tle of  grand  pensionary  ;  and  thus  assumed  the  dominion  of 
30* 


354 


BATTLE  OF  TRAFALGAR. 


Holland,  1805.  England  at  this  time  issued  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal  against  Spain,  to  prosecute  the  war  which  had 
been  declared  the  14th  of  December,  1804. 


CHAP.  XVII. 

Kmperor  Napoleon  on  the  throne  of  Charlemagne — battle  of 
Trafalgar — confederation  of  the  Rhine — Prussian  war — 
battle  of  Jena ;  of  Eylau  ;  of  Friedland — peace  of  Tilsit — 
Berlin  decree — treaty  of  Fontainbleau — Bayonne  Decree — 
fall  of  Charles  IV.  and  Ferdinand  VII. — capture  of  Madrid. 

On  the  1st  of  May,  1805,  the  emperor  Napoleon  was 
.'  rowned  king  of  Italy.  Again  the  Franks  were  gratified  to 
*ee  a  successor  of  Charlemagne  upon  the  throne  of  France, 
and  the  iron  crown  of  the  Romans  placed  upon  the  head  of 
an  emperor  of  the  west.  The  spirit  of  the  nation  was  high, 
but  the  conscripts  began  to  be  sent  to  the  armies,  chained  in 
pairs,  and  the  conscription  galled  ;  internal  gloom  and  mur- 
mur began  to  dampen  the  spirit  of  patriotism,  and  the  voice 
of  applause.  The  senate  of  Genoa  decreed  the  union  of 
the  Ligurian  Republic  with  France.  The  English  made  a 
daring  attempt  to  burn  the  flotilla  in  the  harbor  of  Boulogne 
with  carcases  ;  but  failed,  August  31,  and  the  general  prepa- 
rations for  invasion  went  forward. 

During  these  great  preparations  for  the  invasion  of  Eng- 
land, the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  lay  secure 
in  the  harbor  of  Cadiz  ;  but  the  blockad,e  of  the  English 
under  Lord  Nelson  was  so  close,  as  to  cut  off  all  supplies  by 
water  ;  the  supplies  from  the  country  failed,  and  they  were 
obliged  to  change  their  position.  To  effect  this,  they  put  to 
jsea  in  order  to  gain  the  port  of  Toulon.  Lord  Nelson  pur- 
sued, and  the  fleets  were  soon  in  sight  of  each  other  off  the 
cape  of  Trafalgar.  The  combined  fleet,  to  the  number  of 
twenty  or  thirty  sail,  moved  in  form  of  a  crescent,  under  an 
easy  sail,  before  the  wind.  When  Lord  Nelson  came  up,  he 
ordered  his  fleet  to  bear  down  upon  the  enemy  in  two  divis- 
ions, break  through  the  line,  and  commence  the  attack.  The 
signal  was  obeyed,  and  the  action  commenced. 

The  thunders  ofthe  Nile,  and  of  Copenhagen  were  renew- 
ed ;  the  conflict  became  general  ;  the  battle  was  desperate, 
and  the  carnage  terrible.  The  English  were  victorious  :  the 


HEW    COALITION.  356 

allies  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  fleet,  taken,  sunk,  or  de- 
stroyed, and  the  remnant  made  their  escape  to  Toulon. 

Thus  failed  the  threat  of  the  emperor  Napoleon.  "  I  will 
eat  my  Christmas  dinner  in  London."  Nelson  the  great  ; 
the  hero  of  Aboukir  ;  of  Copenhagen  ;  of  Trafalgar,  &c.  ; 
the  champion  of  the  ocean  ;  the  pride,  the  boast,  and  the  or- 
nament of  his  country,  and  his  country's  arms,  crowned  with 
his  death  the  victory  of  Trafalgar.  Oct.  21,  1805. 

The  emperor  Napoleon  had  ventured  to  say,  that  he 
should  keep  his  Christmas  in  London  ;  this  was  fixing  a  day  ; 
this  rendered  certain,  what  had  before  been  only  conjecture, 
that  he  was  in  earnest,  and  that  he  intended  to  lead  the  en- 
terprise in  person  :  the  whole  political  horizon  was  at  this 
time  dark  and  gloomy.  In  America,  there  was  a  total  eclipse 
of  the  sun  at  mid-day  (a  sublime  display  of  the  majesty  of 
the  heavenly  bodies,)  June  16,  1806. 

A  resolution  originated  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and  passed 
the  national  council,  for  the  abolition  of  slavery.  A  treaty 
was  signed  at  Paris  between  France  and  the  States  of  Bava- 
ria, Wirtemburg,  Baden,  and  several  smaller  German  states, 
such  as  Lower  Saxony  and  Hesse  Cassel,  by  which  these 
states  renounced  their  connection  with  the  German  empire, 
and  under  the  name  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine, 
placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  France.  This 
closed  the  compact  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  which 
had  been  so  long  in  agitation.  This  confederation  opened 
to  France  a  free  access  into  the  heart  of  Germany,  and 
brought  the  two  great  powers  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  upon 
their  frontier  ;  destroyed  at  one  blow  all  that  chain  of  barrier 
towns  which  had  called  forth  the  genius  of  a  Vauban  in  the 
reign  of  Lewis  XIV.  and  been  the  object  of  all  succeeding 
treaties,  for  the  safety  both  of  France  and  Germany. 

This  treaty  opened  to  France  an  easy  passage  to  the  cap- 
itals of  all  the  States  of  Germany  :  and  the  rival  spirit  be- 
tween Prussia  and  Austria,  which  Lewis  XIV.  had  sown,  and 
Lewis  XV.  had  cherished,  now  gave  the  emperor  Napoleon 
an  opportunity  to  improve  it.  England  and  Russia,  alarmed 
at  the  gigantic  strides  of  France,  formed  a  new  coalition  with 
Prussia,  to  protect  the  king  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
emperor  of  France,  and  to  strengthen  the  defence  of  Eng- 
land. The  emperor  Napoleon  was  now  prepared  for  the 
campuign,  to  defeat  this  coalition.  He  had  reapt  the  firs* 


356  BATTLES  OF  JENA  AND  EYLAU. 

fruits  of  the  conquest  over  the  divided  rival  states  of  Austria 
and  Prussia,  by  humbling  the  house  of  Austria,  whilst  the 
king  of  Prussia  remained  an  inacative  spectator  ;  he  was  non- 
prepared  to  strip  the  ancient  laurels  from  the  brows  of  the 
other  rival,  and  shew  to  the  king  of  Prussia  the  truth  of  this 
sacred  maxim,  "  that  a  house  divided  against  itself  must  fall.'' 

The  emperor  Napoleon  knew,  and  the  king  of  Prussia, 
ought  to  have  known  that  a  union  of  Prussia  with  Austria, 
would  have  prevented  the  defeat  of  general  Mac  at  Ulm  :  if 
not,  it  would  have  prevented  the  fall  of  Vienna,  and  given  the 
emperor  of  Russia  time  to  unite  his  forces  ;  this  would  have 
produced  the  same  effects,  as  resulted  from  the  same  union 
ot  Leipsic,  1813.  This  was  now  too  late,  the  die  was  cast, 
Austria  was  humbled,  and  Prussia  stood  alone.  France  held 
Hanover  by  conquest  in  1803.  The  emperor  Napoleon  had 
concluded  a  treaty  at  Paris  with  the  Russian  minister.  This 
treaty  the  emperor  Alexander  refused  to  ratify  :  he  prepared 
to  co-operate  against  France,  and  published  his  manifesto. 

The  French  pressed  upon  the  borders  of  Prussia,  and  oc- 
casioned a  collision  and  rencounter.  Prince  Lewis  of  Prus- 
sia was  killed,  and  war  commenced  ;  both  parties  were  pre- 
pared for  action,  both  sovereigns  took  the  field  :  and  the 
emperor  of  Russia  put  his  army  in  motion  to  co-operate. 

The  emperor  Napoleon  advanced  into  Germany  at  the 
head  of  the  victorious  army  of  the  Danube  ;  the  two  armies 
met  at  Jena,  (a  strong  town  in  Lower  Saxony,)  the  conflict 
was  terrible,  the  victory  decisive  ;  the  Prussians  fled — the 
French  pursued  into  the  heart  of  Prussia,  the  king  reinforced 
as  he  retired  until  winter  checked  the  operations  of  the 
campaign,  and  the  emperor  took  up  his  winter  quarters  in 
Prussia,  and  watched  the  king.  The  Prussians  hoped  to  take 
advantage  of  their  climate,  and  engage  the  French,  by  sur- 
prise, in  their  quarters.  Accordingly,  the  king  at  dead  of 
night,  in  the  severity  of  winter,  attacked  the  emperor  Napo- 
ieon  by  surprise,  in  his  camp  at  Eylau.  A  terrible  conflict 
and  carnage  ensued,  the  veterans  of  the  Danube,  of  Auster- 
litz,  and  of  Jena,  were  firm  and  unshaken,  the  attack  was 
well  concerted,  well  executed,  and  as  well  resisted;  both 
parties  claimed  the  victory,  and  took  up  their  quarters. 

With  the  opening  of  the  spring,  the  emperor  Napoleon 
commenced  his  operations.  Dantzic  and  Conigsburgh  were 
the  trophies  of  his  victories.  The  Prussians  retired  behind 
the  Pregel,  where  they  met  the  Russians  ;  Napoleon  advanc- 


BERLIN  DECREE.  357 

ed  ;  the  two  armies  met  at  Friedland.  Here  the  fate  of  Prus- 
sia was  sealed,  by  an  action  as  great,  as  important,  and  as 
decisive  as  either  of  the  two  armies  had  experienced  ;  the 
victory  was  complete.  The  allies  sued  for  peace,  and  the 
emperor  Napoleon  dictated  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  which  guar- 
anteed the  friendship  of  Alexander,  and  secured  his  safe  re- 
turn into  Russia.  It  opened  all  Prussia  to  the  arms  of  Na- 
poleon, stripped  the  king  of  all  but  the  name  of  king,  with  a 
scanty  pittance  to  support  it,  and  guaranteed  the  peace  of 
Germany,  June  26,  1807.  This  treaty  secured  to  the  empe- 
ror Napoleon,  the  whole  sik-coast  from  Riga,  on  the  confines 
of  Russia,  to  Bayonne,  on  the  confines  of  Spain. 

Napoleon  repaired  to  Berlin,  and  passed  his  Berlin^ecree, 
interdicting  all  commerce  with  England  ;  and  had  high  ex- 
pectations, that  this  decree  would  banish  all  English  com- 
merce from  the  continent.  This  was  one  of  those  decrees 
which  called  forth  the  noted  orders  in  council  in  England, 
which  together,  distressed  neutral  commerce,  excited  gene- 
ral complaint  in  America,  and  caused  the  war  with  England 
in  \  812.  A  general  blockade  by  the  British  ships  of  war  and 
armed  vessels  took  place  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  and  in  the 
Baltic  ;  also  a  proclamation  calling  in  all  their  seamen  abroad, 
in  whatever  service.  This  brought  on.  collisions  between 
British  armed  vessels  and  neutrals,  and  involved  the  question 
of  the  right  of  search.  The  president  of  the  United  States 
issued  his  proclamation,  forbidding  all  intercourse  with  Brit- 
ish ships  of  war  ;  this  expelled  the  English  naval  force  from 
the  American  ports.  These  orders  of  council,  led  the  em- 
peror of  Russia  to  decree  war  against  England,  July  27, 
1807.  The  expedition  into  Prussia,  being  thus  closed,  the 
liberties  of  Germany  sealed  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  and  Rus- 
sia engaged  in  a  war  with  England  ;  all  further  coalition  in 
a  war  with  France  was  closed.  Napoleon  was  now  at  liber- 
ty to  turn  his  attention  to  the  peninsula.  He  led  back  his 
troops  in  triumph  again  into  France,  stationed  them  upon  the 
sea-board,  and  repaired  again  to  his  palace. 

Parties  ran  high  this  year  in  America  ;  the  English,  as  well 
as  the  French,  had  envied  her  prosperous  commerce  :  and 
having  realized  that  America  was  enriched  by  the  quarrels 
of  Europe,  they  had  both  struck  her  a  severe  blow,  by  their 
decrees,  and  orders  in  council.  This  blow  brought  America 
into  the  continental  system,  in  December,  1807.  A  national 
embargo  commenced,  which  lasted  seven  years,  and  finally 


358  INTRIGUES  WITH  SPAIN. 

resulted  in  a  war  with  England,  which  terminated  at  the 
peace  of  1815. 

A  new  field  of  operations  opened  fo  employ  the  energies 
of  Napoleon,  he  now  aspired  to  the  universal  sovereignty  of 
Europe,  if  not  of  the  world,  and  found  it  necessary  to  hold 
the  dominion  of  Spain,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  plans. 

He  remembered,  that  Portugal  originally  was  a  part  of 
Spain,  and  that  on  the  sequestration  of  Alphonso  Henriquez, 
1 139,  it  had  been  united  into  a  kingdom  ;  that  Spain  had  again 
recovered  it  in  1580  ;  and  again  it  was  sequestered  by  the 
duke  of  Braganza,  1640  ;  he  knew  that  it  would  be  an  object 
with  Spain  again  to  recover  Portugal,  and  accordingly  nego- 
ciated%  treaty  at  Fontainbleau,  to  co-operate  with  Spain  in 
the  conquest,  and  partition  of  Portugal  :  with  some  assurances 
to  aid  in  the  recovery  of  Gibraltar.  Charles  IV.  was  upon 
the  throne  of  Spain,  a  very  old  man,  and  his  son,  Ferdinand 
VII.  ready  in  waiting  to  succeed  him.  Napoleon  moved  a 
large  army  to  Bayonne,  (near  the  confines  of  Spain)  passed 
his  Bayonne  decree,  to  strengthen  his  Berlin  decree  against 
English  commerce.  He  next  prepared  to  execute  his  plan  ; 
commenced  an  intrigue  with  Charles  IV.  and  induced  him  to 
resign  his  crown  to  his  son  Ferdinand  ;  he  next  intrigued  with 
Ferdinand,  and  drew  him  into  his  camp  at  Bayonne,  where 
he  detained  him  a  prisoner  ;  he  then  sent  general  Murat, 
grand  duke  of  Berg,  at  the  head  of  a  strong  military  force 
into  Spain,  to  take  possession  of  Madrid. 


CHAP.   XVIII. 

Spanish  Junta  declare  rvar  ;  Joseph  Bonaparte  king  of  Spain 
• — -fall  of  Dupont — conquest  of  Rome — kingdom  of  Holland 
— conference  of  Erfurth —  battle  of  Corunna — Austrian  war 
— battle  of  Ratisbon—fall  of  Vienna — battle  of  Lobeau — of 
Wagram — peace  with  Austria — invasion  of  Holland,  by  the 


CHARLES  IV.  revoked  his  resignation,  appointed  general 
Murat,  lieutenant  general  of  Spain,  and  repaired  to  Bayonne, 
where  he  and  his  son,  both  made  a  formal  surrendry  of  the 
crown  of  Spain,  to  Napoleon  ;  who  conferred  it  upon  his 
brother  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and  detained  Charles  IV.  and' 


INVASION    OF    PORTUGAL.  359 

Ferdinand  VII.  as  prisoners  in  France.  Stung  with  chagrin 
und  indignation,  at  this  outrage  upon  the  sovereignty  of  Spain, 
the  Spaniards  butchered  about  5,000  of  the  French,  under 
Murat  at  Madrid,  and  the  French  about  as  many  Spaniards  in 
their  turn.  The  Junta  of  Spain  caught  the  alarm,  assembled 
an  army,  declared  war  against  France,  retired  into  the  south 
as  far  as  Seville,  and  were  supported  by  the  English  at  Cadiz. 
The  emperor  Napoleon  having  thus  secured  the  crown  of 
Spain,  prepared  to  support  the  title  of  his  brother.  He 
framed  a  new  constitution  for  Spain,  at  Bayonne,  passed  the 
Pyrenees,  and  entered  Spain,  at  the  head  of  the  victorious 
army  of  Germany  ;  marched  to  Madrid,  placed  his  brother 
Joseph  on  the  throne,  caused  him  to  be  crowned,  apd  sent 
one  army  to  co-operate  with  the  Spanish  army  in  the  con- 
quest of  Portugal,  and  another  to  the  south,  to  invest  the  Jun- 
ta in  Seville.  Both  plans  succeeded  ;  the  French  and  Span- 
iards entered  Portugal,  and  penetrated  to  Lisbon.  The  roy- 
al family  retired  to  Brazil,  in  South  America.  General  Soult 
pushed  the  conquest  of  the  south  of  Spain,  and  invested  Ca- 
diz. The  English  sent  a  fleet  to  protect  Cadiz.  The  Eng- 
lish sent  a  strong  force  to  Lisbon,  drove  out  the  French,  and 
prepared  to  co-operate  with  the  Portuguese,  in  recovering 
their  country  :  they  trained  the  Portuguese  soldiers  to  arms 
and  discipline,  and  taught  them  how  to  beat  the  French. 

At  this  time,  general  Dupont,  with  an  army  of  1 4,000  men, 
surrendered  to  the  Spanish  patriots,  July  31,  1808.  This 
blow  shook  the  throne  of  king  Joseph  ;  he  considered  all  as 
lost  ;  and  suffered  the  churches  in  Madrid  to  be  rifled,  to- 
gether with  other  excesses  and  irregularities — collected  his 
troops,  and  evacuated  Madrid,  August  21,  1808.  The 
French,  at  the  same  time,  entered  Rome,  in  Italy,  decreed 
the  papal  throne  .vacant,  and  deprived  the  Pope  of  his  eccle- 
siastical states,  to  compel  him  to  enforce  the  continental  sys- 
tem. The  emperor  Napoleon  subverted  the  republic  of  Hol- 
land, erected  it  into  a  kingdom,  and  placed  his  brother  Louis 
upon  the  throne. 

At  this  time,  sir  Arthur  Wellesley  began  to  act  in  Portu- 
gal, and  gained  the  action  at  Vimeria,  which  proved  fatal  to 
the  French  arms  in  Portugal,  and  compelled  them  to  sue  for 
an  armistice,  which  was  granted  ;  they  evacuated  Portugal 
by  a  convention,  October  1,  1808.  In  this  state  of  things,  the 
emperor  Napoleon  proposed  an  interview  with  the  emperor 
Alexander,  at  Erfurth,  (a  strong  town  in  Thuringia,  in  Lower 


360  AUSTRIAN    WAR. 

Saxony,  in  Germany,)  then  under  the  dominion  ofthe  French. 
This  interview  took  place  October  12,  lasted  several  days, 
attended  with  much  etiquette  ;  and  closed,  with  mutual  as- 
surances offriendship  and  good  humor. 

The  result  of  this  conference  was,  a  mutual  overture  to 
England,  for  peace  :  this  was  rejected  ;  and  the  English  sent 
a  strong  armament  to  the  north  of  Spain,  under  generals 
Moore  and  Baird,  and  assembled  their  force  at  Salamanca. 
Alarmed  at  this  movement,  the  emperor  repaired  to  Madrid 
with  a  strong  force,  restored  king  Joseph  to  the  throne,  and 
took  the  field  in  person.  At  the  approach  of  the  emperor, 
the  British  arrny  retired  towards  the  coast ;  the  French  pres- 
sed close  upon  their  rear  ;  some  sharp  encounters  ensued, 
but  nothing  decisive,  until  they  reached  Corunna,  the  port 
of  embarkation.  Here,  sir  John  Moore  was  compelled  to 
sustain  a  general  action,  to  cover  the  embarkation  :  the 
French  were  victorious  ;  the  English  suffered  very  severely, 
and  sir  J.  Moore  fell  in  the  action.  Thus  Spain,  on  the  north, 
was  cleared  at  a  blow.  Napoleon  returned  to  Paris,  and  left 
Jung  Joseph  in  quiet  possession  of  his  crown. 

Great  Britain,  alarmed  at  the  conference  at  Erfurth,  enter- 
ed into  a  negociation,  and  settled  a  peace  with  the  Turks,  in 
order  to  find  employment  for  the  Emperor  Alexander. 

Napoleon  addressed  a  letter  to  the  Emperor  Alexander,  in 
which  he  styled  him  Emperor  ofthe  East,  and  received,  in 
reply,  the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  West — and  hostilities  com- 
menced immediately,  between  Russia  and  the  Turks. 

At  this  time,  Mr.  Madison  succeeded  Mr.  Jefferson,  in  the 
presidency  in  America ;  Mr.  Erskine  concluded  with  the 
American  government  a  treaty  of  accommodation  to  regulate 
the  commercial  differences  between  England  and  America, 
and  commerce  was  restored  by  the  president's  proclamation. 
This  negotiation  was  disavowed  by  the  British  government, 
and  things  remained  as  they  were. 

The  rupture  contemplated  between  France  and  Austria 
now  became  inevitable — Austria  had  renewed  her  strength 
during  the  conflicts  in  Spain  ;  assembled  another  army  at  Ulm, 
and  prince  Charles  was  now  invested  with  the  supreme  com- 
mand ;  he  published  his  manifesto  and  took  the  field,  March  14. 

Fired  with  indignation  at  this  new  coalition,  the  Emperor 
Napoleon,  (now  on  the  coast  superintending  the  preparations 
for  invasion,)  repaired  to  Paris,  made  a  demand  on  the  bank 
for  an  immense  sum,  guaranteed  the  safety  of  the  bank  against 


BATTLE  OF  LOBEAL.  L»U  1 

all  runs  that  should  affect  its  credit,  and  protected  it  by  a 
military  force  ;  returned  to  his  army,  put  himself  at  their 
head,  crossed  the  bridge  at  Strasburg,  and  appeared  inSuabia. 
J he  victories  of  Puffenhoffen,  Tarn,  Aberisburg,  Landshut, 
and  Eckmul,  on  the  20th,  21st,  22d  and  23d  of  April,  announ- 
ced the  approach  of  the  conqueror.  He  advanced  without 
farther  opposition,  and  met  prince  Charles  at  Ratisbon  ;  here 
a  terrible  coiTflict  ensued ;  the  prince  was  routed,  and  retired 
in  disorder  upon  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube  :  the  emperor 
Napoleon  passed  through  Ratisbon  on  the  29th,  took  the  right 
bank,  and  by  forced  marches  appeared  before  Vienna,  be- 
fore prince  Charles  arrived  ;  took  the  city,  and  rested  his  ar- 
my on  the  21st  and  22d  of  May.  The  prince  passed  on  the 
opposite  bank  a  few  miles  below  the  city,  and  fortified  a  strong 
ramp,  upon  the  heights  of  Aspern  and  Esling,  opposite  to  the 
island  of  Lobeau  :  the  centre  of  his  camp  was  supported  by 
an  immense  park  of  artillery,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent  ;  here 
he  awaited  the  French. 

When  the  emperor  Napoleon  had  rested,  and  refreshed  his 
army  at  Vienna,  he  moved  down  to  Lobeau,  caused  abridge 
of  boats  to  be  thrown  across  on  to  the  island,  and  from  thence 
to  the  opposite  bank  ;  and  put  his  army  in  motion  to  cross  : 
when  about  one  half  of  the  army  had  gained  the  opposite 
bank,  the  prince  caused  a  large  quantity  of  logs  (which  he 
had  prepared  for  the  purpose,)  to  be  let  loose  ;  these  de- 
stroyed the  emperor's  bridge,  upon  the  opposite  bank,  and 
at  the  same  time,  Charles  commenced  an  attack. 

The  emperor  saw  himself  out-generaled  :  his  situation 
was  critical,  and  his  measures  were  desperate.  He  ordered 
the  bridge  to  be  repaired,  and  at  the  same  time  commenced  an 
attack  upon  the  Austrian  camp — but  without  success  :  he  re- 
newed the  attack — but  without  success  :  he  then  ordered 
mareschal  Lannes,  at  the  head  of  the  French  cavalry,  to  charge 
the  centre  of  the  Austrian  camp,  and  carry  the  whole  cres- 
centof  artillery  :  this  desperate  assault  was  executed  with  all 
the  intrepidity  and  valor  of  mareschal  Lannes — but  without 
success  ;  he  crowned  this  assault  with  his  death. 

This  desperate  attack  astonished  the  prince,  and  gave  & 
check  to  his  efforts  ;  and  Napoleon  (having  repaired  hie 
bridge)  drew  off  his  army,  repassed  the  Danube,  and  return- 
ed to  Vienna  ;  here  he  rested  and  recruited  ins  army  a  whole 
month.  The  tribute  of  respect  the  emperor  p-iid  to  the 
memory  of  mareschal  Lannes  was,  to  cause  his  body  tr 

31 


362  BATTLE    OF    WAGHAty. 

conveyed  to  France  in  a  coach  of  state,  covered  with  a  black 
pall,  attended  by  a  military  escort. 

After  the  action  of  Lobeau,  prince  Charles  moved  down 
the  river,  and  fortified  a  strong  camp  on  the  plains  of  Wa- 
gram,  and  awaited  the  emperor.  When  the  emperor  Napo- 
leon had  fully  reconnoitered  the  position  of  the  prince,  he 
put  his  army  in  motion,  crossed  the  river  again  at  Lobeau, 
and  under  cover  of  a  dark,  rainy,  dismal  night,*led  his  army 
through  by-roads  considered  as  impassable  for  an  army,  and 
in  the  morning  appeared  on  the  plains  of  Wagram,  in  the 
rear  of  the  prince.  The  prince  in  his  turn  was  compelled 
to  fight  in  a  position  uncontemplated  ;  his  fortified  camp  was 
now  rendered  useless  ;  the  conflict  was  short,  but  terrrible — 
and  fatal  to  the  prince  :  his  army  was  cut  to  pieces,  routed 
and  destroyed,  and  a  remnant  fled  into  Hungary.  The  em- 
peror advanced  as  far  as  Presburg,  halted  his  army  a  few  days, 
returned  to  Vienna,  settled  a  peace  with  the  emperor  of 
Austria,  dismembered  again  the  southern  section  of  Austria, 
by  a  line  running  from  Switzerland  to  Hungary,  and  annexed 
it.  to  Italy  :  this  included  the  country  of  the  Grissons — No- 
vember 8,  1809. 

During  these  operations,  the  duke  of  Sudermania  was  elect- 
ed king  of  Sweden,  under  the  title  of  Charles  XIII.  May  14  ; 
and  on  the"  9th  of  August  the  English  invaded  the  coast  of 
Holland  with  an  army  of  40,000  men,  and  took  the  island  of 
Walcheren  ;  but  were  soon  obliged  to  abandon  it,  to  save 
their  army  from  the  pestilence  of  the  climate. 


CHAP.  XIX. 

The  imperial  continental  system — divorce  of  the  empress  Jo- 
sephine, and  marriage  of  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria — war  in 
Spain-- -war  in  Turkey— war  in  Portugal- —birth  of  the  im- 
perial heir  of  France— preparations  for  the  Russian  war — 
America. 

THE  emperor  returned  to  France  ;  again  formed  the  line 
of  invasion  upon  the  sea-coast,  pushed  the  war  in  Spain,  and 
pressed  the  continental  system,  in  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Hol- 
land, Austria,  Germany,  Prussia,  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Nor- 
way ;  also  in  Hamburg,  and  ttie  cities  of  the  Hanseatic  league. 


IMPERIAL      MARRIAGE.  3G3 

This  system  at  this  time  embraced  all  Europe,  except  Tur- 
key and  Russia.  The  emperor  of  the  French  now  beheld 
himself  upon  the  throne  of  Charlemagne,  with  an  extent  of 
dominion  greater,  and  a  population  far  more  numerous,  en- 
riched with  all  the  treasures  of  commerce,  and  adorned  with 
all  the  refinements  of  the  sciences,  and  th.r  elegance  and 
splendor  of  the  arts.  A  throne  unrivalled  in  the  annals  of 
time.  The  war  in  Spain  was  only  considered  as  a  field  day 
exercise,  to  keep  the  troops  in  motion,  and  amuse  the  French 
people. 

The  ambition  of  this  mighty  conqueror  was  not  yet  satisfi- 
ed. In  his  early  career  of  glory  under  the  consulate,  he  h«d 
married  the  favorite  of  the  director  Barras,  who  filled  the 
throne,  as  empress,  with  dignity  ;  bu.t  remained  without  issue. 
To  remedy  this  evil,  and  to  strengthen  his  crown,  Napoleon 
divorced  his  wife  Josephine,  and  offered  his  hand  to  the  arch- 
duchess Maria  Louisa,  of  Austria.  This  overture  was  accept- 
ed, and  general  Berthier,  prince  ofNeufchatel,  was  despatch- 
ed to  Vienna  to  celebrate  the  nuptials,  and  escort  the  em- 
press into  France  :  where  again  they  were  celebrated,  with 
all  the  pomp  and  splendor,  becoming  the  emperor  of  France. 
The  emperor  passed  but  a  short  time  at  Paris  :  he  assem- 
bled a  large  force  at  Bayonne  ;  pushed  the  war  in  Spain, 
strengthened  the  line  of  invasion  of  England  ;  and  passed  the 
season  of  1810  in  visiting  his  dominions,  particularly  the  sea- 
coast,  accompanied  by  the  empress.  The  war  raged  this 
year  in  Spain  with  various  success  ;  but  nothing  decisive. 
The  emperor  of  Russia  prosecuted  the  war  against  the 
Turks  with  vigor,  and  acquired  some  very  considerable  ad- 
vantages in  the  provinces  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  The 
emperor  Napoleon,  viewed  with  a  jealous  eye,  these  move- 
ments of  the  emperor  Alexander,  and  determined  to  check 
him.  He  again  pressed  him  to  enforce  the  continental  system 
in  Russia  ;  not  succeeding  in  this,  he  entered  into  secret  trea- 
ties with  the  courts  of  Austria  and  Prussia,  to  furnish  such  a 
quota  of  men,  &c.  to  compel  the  emperor  Alexander  to  adopt 
the  continental  system  :  all  under  the  mask  of  coercing 
England  to  peace. 

The  plans  being  settled,  he  began  to  push  the  war  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  with  vigor  ;  sent  general  Massena  into 
Portugal  at  the  head  of  70,000  men,  and  invested  the  Eng- 
lish and  Portuguese  in  Lisbon.  The  English  fleet  protected 
the  city,  and  the  French  made  no  assault. 


WAR  IN    PORTUGAL. 

General  Massena  drew  off  his  army  from  before  Lisbon, 
and  retired  up  the  Tagus  with  a  view  to  cross  that  river,  and 
carry  on  his  operations  against  Lisbon  upon  the  left  bank  ; 
ravage  the  south  country  of  Portugal,  and  bombard  Lisbon 
from  the  heighjts  opposite  the  city.  Lord  Wellington  pressed 
him  so  close  with  the  British  and  Portuguese  army,  as  to  de- 
feat this  movement ;  he  gained  some  important  advantages  in 
the  mountain?,  in  the  battle  of  Busaco,  over  general  Massena, 
November  15,1810.  The  emperor  reinforced  this  army, 
and  general  Massena  advanced  again  ;  drove  lord  Welling- 
ton into  Lisbon,  and  invested  the  city.  The  Spanish  patriots 
were  assembled  in  arms  throughout  the  interior,  and  harassed 
the  French  with  frequent  and  sharp  skirmishes,  and  the  spirit 
of  opposition  increased  daily  in  Spain. 

The  emperor,  at  this  time,  saw  himself  at  the  head  of  800, 
000  men  in  arms  ;  450,000  of  this  force  were  in  the  interi- 
or of  France,  and  on  the  sea-board  ;  and  the  pressure  on 
England  increased  daily.  Expectations  of  ruining  the  English 
system  of  finance,  were  very  high  in  France  ;  but  Russia 
still  held  out. 

At  this  time  the  credit  of  the  English  funds  stood  high  ; 
their  flag  waved  in  every  clime,  and  every  sea.  By  a  fortui- 
tous concurrence  of  events,  the  whole  trade  of  South  Ameri- 
ca had  been  opened  to  England  :  this  supplied  her  West  In- 
dia colonies,  as  well  as  augmented  her  revenue.  Loans  to 
immense  amount  were  filled  as  soon  as  opened  ;  they 
strengthened  their  position  at  Lisbon  ;  augmented  their  ar* 
my  ;  and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  successes  of  1812. 

At  this  time,  the  empress  presented  the  emperor  with  an 
heir  to  the  throne,  April  20, 1811;  who  was  named  Napole- 
on Francis  Charles  Joseph.  Parties  at  this  time  ran  high  in 
America,  and  the  government  looked  for  a  war  with  England. 

The  emperor  had  now  completed  his  plans,  and  began  to 
put  his  machines  in  motion  :  he  organized  his  system  of  fi- 
nance, to  meet  the  importance  of  the  movements  :  he  in- 
trigued with  the  Poles,  and  promised  to  restore  the  unity  and 
sovereignty  of  Poland  :  drew  his  best  troops  from  Spain,  and 
replaced  them  by  detachments  from  the  north  of  Germany, 
and  the  banks  of  the  Vistula  ;  and  pressed  the  king  of  Den- 
mark into  a  compliance  with  his  measures.  He  dissolved 
the  kingdom  of  Holland,  annexed  it  to  France,  incorporatec 
it  with  the  empire,  and  brought  king  Louis  to  Paris. 

At  this  time,  general  Massena  again  fell  back  from  before 
Lisbon,  for  want  of  supplies  for  his  army.  Lord  Wellington 


WAR  IN  SPAIN.  365 

again  pressed  close  upon  the  French,  and  gained  some  advan- 
tages. The  war  raged  sharp  in  Spain,  between  lord  Wel- 
lington and  general  Massena,  and  became  a  war  of  posts. 
The  French  invested  Cadiz,  and  attempted  to  reduce  it  by 
storm  ;  but  the  English  protected  the  city,  and  set  them  at 
defiance.  General  Soult  assembled  and  concentrated  his 
forces,  and  by  severe  and  repeated  actions,  protected  Buda- 
jos.  General  Massena  in  the  same  manner  covered  Cindad 
Roderigo.  These  movements  and  operations,  called  forth 
the  talents  and  energies  of  some  of  the  greatest  captains  ; 
and  the  desperate  conflicts  which  frequently  took  place,  to- 
gether with  the  harassing  parties  of  the  Spanish  patriots, 
rendered  Spain  one  theatre  of  carnage  and  distress.  These 
scenes  continued  to  waste  and  distress  that  devoted  country, 
under  various  successes,  through  the  years  1811  and  12,  dur- 
ing the  grand  operations  of  the  Russian  war  ;  until  the  over- 
throw of  the  emperor  Napoleon  in  the  north,  gave  to  his 
enemies  the  superiority  in  the  south,  and  secured  to  lord  Wel- 
lington a  triumph,  which  broke  the  power  of  Napoleon  in 
Spain,  and  drove  the  French  from  the  Peninsula. 

During  the  operations  of  181 1  in  Spain,  the  whole  Chris- 
tian world  was  one  theatre  of  intrigue.  The  emperor  of 
Russia  waged  successful  war  with  the  Turks  ;  but  at  the 
same  time  made  overtures  for  peace.  England  favored  these 
overtures,  with  a  view  to  unite  Russia,  Austria,  and  the  Turk, 
in  one  grand  coalition  against  France.  This  failed — Napo- 
leon had  guarded  against  this,  by  a  secret  treaty  with  the 
emperor  of  Austria.  Great  efforts  were  made  to  relieve 
Prussia  from  her  fallen  situation  ;  but  to  no  effect — Prussia 
was  down,  and  entangled  in  a  secret  treaty  with  the  emperor 
of  France  ;  and  the  grand  coalition  against  Russia,  was 
formed. 

The  war  In  Spain,  gave  employment  for  the  troops  of  Eng- 
land ;  her  fleets  scoured  the  coast  of  Europe,  upon  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Baltic,  and  enforced  her  system  of  general  blockade  ; 
whilst  the  great  internal  movements,  and  military  preparations 
in  Austria,  Prussia,  Poland,  Italy  and  throughout  the  confede- 
ration of  the  Rhine  ;  together  with  the  preparation  in  Rus- 
sia, rendered  those  countries  one  great  theatre  of  intrigue 
and  alarm  ;  whilst  Spain  and  European  Turkey,  wj~o  the 
theatres  of  desolation  and  raruage.  The  intriguer  which  ex- 
cited and  put  in  motion  all  their  great  plans  and  operations, 
extended  to  America  ;  distracted  her  councils,  inflamed 
31* 


366  REMARKS. 

the  passions,  roused  the  public  feeling,  and  in  addition  to  the 
continental  system  of  Dec.  1807,  led  her  into  the  war. 

America,  under  her  neutrality,  had  become  the  carriers 
upon  the  ocean  for  the  continent  of  Europe,  through  this  long 
and  desperate  struggle  ;  her  flag  waved  in  every  sea,  and  eve- 
ry clime.  Her  commercial  field  was  truly  great,  and  the 
harvest  was  great.  The  wealth  and  commerce  of  America 
increased  beyond  all  former  example.  This  excited  a  spirit 
of  envy  and  jealousy  at  home  and  abroad,  which  endangered 
her  internal  peace,  and  in  1812  entangled  her  in  a  war  with 
England. 

The  continental  system  of  1807,  gave  a  check  to  the  tide 
of  prosperous  and  successful  commerce  in  America  ;  and  the 
war  with  England,  destroyed  it,  even  to  the  coasting  trade, 
down  to  the  peace  of  1815. 

The  ruin  and  distress  which  so  suddenly  succeeded  this 
unrivalled  prosperity  of  America,  were  the  necessary  effects 
of  such  opposite  extremes  ;  they  were  such  as  the  feelings 
of  the  nation  could  express — but  not  the  pen. 

If  the  morals  of  the  nation  have  been  improved,  and  licen- 
tiousness and  dissipation  checked  ;  if  union,  and  general  har- 
mony have  in  some  measure  grown  oul  of  this  chastisement  ; 
if,  as  the  fruits  of  a  two  year's  war,  America  has  acquired 
a  naval  glory,  which  shall  cause  her  flag  to  be  more  respect- 
ed hereafter ;  she  may  derive  some  consolation  for  all  her 
sufferings,  through  this  long  period  of  distress. 

America  not  only  became  entangled  in  the  quarrels  of 
Europe,  when  she  adopted  the  continental  system,  by  her 
general  embargo — but  she  actually  became  a  party  in  the 
grand  coalition  of  1812,  when  she  declared  war  against  Eng- 
land ;  and,  painful  as  this  may  have  been  to  the  nation,  it  is 
greatly  to  be  hoped,  that  a  general  good  has  resulted,  and  will 
continue  to  result,  which  shall  fully  counterbalance  all  her 
sufferings. 

We  have  now  unfolded  the   mysteries  of  intrigue,  which 

entangled  in  one  general  quarrel  the  whole  Christian  world  ; 

opened  the  greatest  field  of  military  enterprize,  produced  the 

greatest  distresses,  and  resulted  in  the  greatest  events,  of  any 

er  war  that  has  ever  been  recorded. 


RUSSIAN    WAR.  367 


CHAP.  XX. 

Commencement  of  the  Russian  war American  war move- 
ments in  the  Russian  rvar — battle  of  Smolensk — of  Borodino 
— -fall  and  destruction  of  Moscow. 

THE  auspicious  year  1812  is  come;  big  with  the  fate  of 
Napoleon  and  of  France.  The  emperor  of  the  west,  like 
the  main  spring  of  a  watch,  now  put  in  motion  all  the  vast 
machine  of  power,  which  he  had  constructed  to  fix  the  desti- 
nies of  Europe.  He  again  renewed  his  demands  on  the  em- 
peror Alexander,  to  adopt  the  continental  system,  and  de- 
manded that  Riga  should  be  garrisoned  with  the  troops  of 
France. — These  were  rejected  with  that  dignity  and  firmness 
which  distinguished  the  character  of  Alexander. 

The  emperor  then  called  into  the  field,  the  armies  of  Aus~ 
tria  and  Prussia,  as  stipulated  by  treaty,  in  the  year  1811  ; 
and  assembled  an  army  in  Prussia  and  Poland,  from  all  parts 
of  his  vast  dominions,  of  French,  Austrians,  Prussians,  Ger- 
mans, Italians  and  Poles,  of  from  four  to  six  hundred  thou- 
sand men,  and  took  up  his  head  quarters  at  Warsaw. 

The  emperor  of  Russia,  assembled  an  army  at  W ilna,  in 
Poland,  to  watch  the  French,  under  the  command  of  prince 
Bagration — entered  into  a  convention  with  England  for  gen- 
eral safety  and  defence,  sent  the  Russian  fleet  to  England,  to 
secure  it  from  the  French,  but  more  particularly,  as  a  pledge 
for  the  general  exigencies  of  the  war  :  opened  anegociation 
for  peace  with  the  Turks,  under  the  influence  of  England, 
and  repaired  to  Wilna.  Negociation  was  soon  closed,  and 
both  armies  took  the  field. 

Here  opens  the  second  volume  of  Charles  XII.  The  em- 
peror moved  his  grand  army  to  attack  the  prince  at  Wilna  : 
the  prince  retired  to  Drissa  :  at  the  same  time,  a  Prussian 
nrmy  under  general  McDonald,  penetrated  into  Russia,  by 
the  way  of  Riga,  towards  Petersburg. 

The  emperor  Napoleon  now  saw  the  two  capitals  of  Russia, 
(the  great  objects  of  his  enterprise)  in  view  of  expectancy, 
and  began  to  realise,  that  this  grand  movement  would  fix  the 
fate  of  Europe,  and  crown  him  lord  of  Christendom. 

Every  movement  was  announced,  by  a  special  bulletin 
from  the  emperor  Napoleon,  proclaiming  the  advance  and 
successes  of  the --rand  army  All  Europe,  both  Tuvk.^  ind 
Christians.,  were  alive  to  the  scene,  and  anxious  for  the  event. 


368  BATTLE    OF    BORODINO. 

At  this  critical  moment,  America  proclaimed  war  against 
England,  and  made  a  sudden  descent  upon  Canada.  Denmark 
had  furnished  the  fine  horses  of  Hplstein,  to  fill  up  the  caval- 
ry of  the  French  armies,  and  the  whole  Christian  world  were 
now  leagued  against  Russia  and  England,  excepting  Sweden  ; 
she  alone  remained  neuter  ;  the  Turk  also  withdrew  from 
the  war,  gave  up  his  advantages,  and  settled  a  peace  with  the 
emperor  Alexander. 

Thus  armed,  thus  arranged,  the  awful,  the  eventful  scene 
opened.  From  Drissa,  the  grand  army  moved  to  Polotsk  ; 
the  prince  again  retired  to  Witepsk  ;  the  emperor  advanced  ; 
the  prince  again  retired  to  Smolensk,  and  made  a  stand  : 
the  emperor  advanced  :  here  the  two  armies  met  for  the 
first  time,  and  a  severe  action  ensued  ;  the  Russians  fought 
for  their  fires  and  their  altars — they  were  overpowered  by 
numbers,  and  retired  with  firmness  towards  Moscow. 

Flushed  with  the  successes  of  Smolensk,  the  grand  army 
advance^.  On  the  hills  of  Borodino,  the  prince,  with  some 
reinforcements,  again  made  a  stand.  The  emperor  pursued 
with  a  strong  column,  as  his  advanced  guard,  and  found  the 
Russians  strongly  intrenched  upon  an  eminence,  under  co- 
ver of  a  formidable  redoubt,  lined  with  artillery,  and  de- 
termined to  await  the  issue  of  a  battle,  in  the  view  of 
Moscow. 

The  emperor  beheld  at  a  distance,  the  object  of  his  wish- 
es— Moscow,  like  a  little  world,  filled  all  the  plain.  The 
French  soldiers,  fired  with  the  prospect  of  reaping  the  spoils 
of  Moscow,  as  a  reward  for  all  their  toils,  burnt  with  impa- 
tience for  the  combat. 

Nopoleon  cherished  this  ardor  ;  and  before  the  day  closed, 
commenced  a  desperate  assault  upon  the  grand  Russian  re- 
doubt, and  carried  it  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet :  the  conflict 
was  sharp — but  the  Russians  retired,  and  left  this  bulwark 
of  their  defence,  in  the  hands  of  the  French  ;  night  closed 
tht  scene. 

\The  next  day  .opened  a  solemn  scene. — The  two  armies  in 
view  of  each  other,  passed  the  day  in  reconnoitering,  and  in 
strengthening  their  positions,  to  complete  the  work  of  death. 
Night  closed  this  scene  without  a  blow.  The  angel  of  death 
sat  brooding  over  the  night,  to  indulge  in  a  repose  thatshould 
serve  to  heighten  the  carnage  of  the  morning.  The  fatal  morn 
appeared  :  the  sun  rose  clear,  and  with  his  first  beams,  caught 


"Alt  Ocean  of  Klauir."    /;/.///.  Xn/n,i,,>ii 


irill 


/itv>/Ht/>li/  ivxit/f  hi  t/if  1  1  -in  in  h  /i  o/'t/H'  lif/(>/-niiiti<>/i,tiuf/  t/ic 

t'Ntflli/isllllK'Ilt  ///'///<'  J\'itHfflfHH    ftf  lilt'  Stf'IH'    III  IVHI'/lfOtit    I/If 


CONFLAGRATION    OF    MOSCOW.  3tj9 

the  eye  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  ;  who  exclaimed  with  em- 
phasis, "  'tis  the  sun  of  Austerlitz."     Death  roused  from  his 
slumbers,   and  opened  the   scene.     Prince  Bagration  com-, 
menced  an  attack,  to  recover  the  redoubt  he  had  lost  the  pre- 
ceding day  ;  a  strong  Russian  column  moved  to  the  charge  : 
it  was  now  impregnable  ;  and  vomited  forth  death  into  the 
Russian  ranks,  and  broke  the  column.     Both  armies  became 
engaged  in  the  conflict :  the  ardor  and  impetuosity  of  the. 
French,  forced  the   Russians  to  recoil ;  but  it  was  only  to 
concentrate  their  force,  and  advance  in  solid  columns  to  the 
charge.     The  conflict  now  became  terrible  ;  the  ardor  of 
the  French,  and  the  firmness  of  the  Russians,  opened  a  dis- 
play of  valor  and  heroism,  amidst  the  thunders  of  a  cannon- 
ade, and  the  carnage  of  a  field,  that  will  ever  render  memo- 
rable, the  battle  of  Borodino  ;    horrors,  which  neither  the 
pen  nor  the  pencil  can  describe.     The  French  retired,  and 
left  the  field  to  the  defenders  of  their  country ;  the  great 
Bagration  crowned  with  his  death,  the  victory  of  Borodino. 
The  emperor  Napoleon  drew  oft"  his  army,  to  recover  his 
losses  ;  and  published  in  ge'neral  orders — "  Soldiers  !•  This 
is  the  first  action  I  ever  lost  ;  you  must  wipe  off  the  stain, 
with  the  blood  of  the  Russians."     The  losses  in  tins  action 
were  severe  upon  both  sides — but  nothing  decisive  :  it  had 
not  become  the  sun  of  Austerlitz — the  stratagem  failed.     Old 
prince  Kutusoff,  who  now  became  the  Russian  chief,  did  not 
pursue  the  victory  ;  had  he  done  it,  the  emperor  Napoleon 
would  have  brought  into  action  his  corps  de  reserve,  anrj  the 
action  would  then  have  become  the  action  of  Austerlitz.    The 
scene  was  reversed  : — Kutusoff  retired  to  Moscow,  marched 
through,  collected  all  the  treasures  and  inhabitants  of  the  city, 
and  carried  off  the  fire  engines  ;  and  when  the  emperor  ofthe 
French  entered,  the  Russians  divided  into  three  armies,  and 
invested  him  in  Moscow.     Rastapchin,  the  governor,  gave  a 
general  notice  to  the  inhabitants,   who  had  made  a  general 
preparation  for  removal  ;  and  in  the  midst  ofthe  triumphs  of 
the  ernperor,  they  fired  the  city  :  the  convicts  in  the  prisons, 
were  set  at  liberty  for  this  awful  scene  ;  and  in  one  hour,  the 
flames  burst  forth  from  all    parts,  and   raged   throughout. 
Thus,   this  ancient  capital  of  Russia,    the  pride  and  boast 
of  Muscovy,   a  city,  ten  miles  in  extent,  and  thirty  or  forty 
miles  in  circuit,  was  wrapt  in  flames,  and  consumed  with  one 
general  conflagration,  which  can  neither  be  conceived  of,  nor 


370  CHARACTER    OF    THE    WAR. 

described  :  the  awful  sublimity  of  the  scene  was  strikingly 
expressed  by  the  emperor  Napoleon — "  an  ocean  of  flame." 
But  the  wealth  and  splendor  of  Moscow  were  soon  smoking 
in  ruins — Fatal  was  the  battle  of  Pultowa,  to  Charles  XII.  : 
fatal  was  the  destruction  of  Moscow  v  to  the  emperor  Na- 
poleon, 


CHAP.  XXI. 

Character  of  the  Russians — overtures  of  peace — firmness  of 
the  emperor  Alexander — views  of  Napoleon — retreat  of  the 
French— -flight  of  Napoleon — destruction  of  the  French  ar- 
my— the  emperor  Napoleon  in  Paris — again  in  Saxony  at 
the  head  of  a  new  army — battle  of  Leipsic — Napoleon  in  Pa- 
ris — successes  of  Lord  Wellington — restoration  of  the  fami- 
ly of  Bourbon — Napoleon  at  Elba — lord  Wellington  in  Pa- 
ris— Napoleon  in  Paris — battle  of  Waterloo — Napoleon  in 
England — at  St.  Helena — Lewis  XVlll.  again  in  Paris — 
Lord  Wellington  again  in  Paris — the  empress  Maria  Louisa, 
with  her  little  son.,  at  Milan. 

THE  Russians  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Scythi- 
ans :  the  war  was  a  Scythian  war  :  and  the  result,  such  as  has 
been  common  to  the  invasions  of  Scythia.  The  French  gave 
a  loose  reign  to  all  the  passions  in  Moscow  ;  and  rioted  amidst 
the  distresses  of  the  scene.  The  emperor  Napoleon  took  up 
his  quarters  in  the  Kremlin,  the  citadel  of  Moscow,  and  cradle 
of  the  Czars  of  Russia.  Here  he  made  overtures  of  peace 
to  the  emperor  Alexander :  the  emperor  amused  him  until 
he  had  collected  his  forces,  strengthened  his  armies,  and  sent 
orders  for  the  army  of  the  Danube  to  advance,  in  the  rear  of 
the  French,  to  intercept  their  retreat. 

This  army  had  been  trained  to  arms,  in  the  successful  cam- 
paigns against  the  Turks,  in  18 10  and  1 1.  Then  the  empe- 
ror Alexander  rejected  the  overture,  and  published  in  his 
manifesto — "  I  will  never  make  peace,  so  long  as  Napoleon, 
or  any  of  his  family,  are  upon  the  throne  of  France." 

Napoleon  now  saw  before  him  the  dreadful  alternative. 
That  confidence  which  had  led  him  to  the  conquest  of  Moscow, 
taught  him  to  believe,  that  he  should  winter  there  ;  and  he  had 
neglected  even  one  solitary  preparation  to  facilitate  a  retreat. 
The  Russians,  on  their  retreat,  laid  waste  their  country  ;  and 


PLIGHT  OF  NAPOLEON.  371 

what  the  Russians  left,  the  French  army  destroyed  ;  so  that 
the  whole  extent  of  way,   from  Moscow  to  Polotsk,  on  the 
confines  of  Poland,  was  literally  a  desert  ;  and  the  Russians 
were  now  destroying  all  the  bridges,  through  all  this  extent 
of  way.     The  emperor  Napoleon  now  felt  the  destruction  of 
Moscow.     Instead  of  rioting,  with  his  army,  through  the  win- 
ter, in  the  spoils  of  Moscow  ; — instead  of  restoring  the  ancient 
sovereignty  of  Muscovy,  placing  his  brother  Louis  on  the 
throne  of  the  Czars,  who  should  reign  in  the  north,  the  great 
ally  of  France,  humble  the  emperor  Alexander,  and  bar  his 
sword  from  all  further  weight  in  the  great  scale  of  Europe  ; 
instead  of  returning  in  the  spring  with  his  victorious  army  in- 
to France,  to  swell  the  trump  of  fame  with  the  triumphs  of 
another  campaign  ;  instead  of  assembling   all   confederated 
Europe  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  under  the  protecting 
sword  of  his  ally  of  Muscovy     (this  contemplated  shield  of 
the  north)     marching  at  the  head  of  his  legions  to  the  banks 
of  the  Hellespont,  and  planting  his  eagles  on  the  walls  of  Con- 
stantinople ;     may  I  yet  say,  instead  of  triumphing  over  Asia 
and  America,  and  erecting  his  standard  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
liberties  of  man  ;  this  hero  of  Borodino  and  of  Moscow,  be- 
came the  hepo  of  a  different  scene.     He  wreaked^ his  ven- 
geance on  the  Kremlin,  by  blowing  up,  and  destroying  the 
cradle  of  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  Muscovy  ;  collected  the 
remaining  treasures  of  Moscow,  and  took  up  his  retreat,  in 
order  to  recover  his  former  position  in  Poland.  His  first  move- 
ments were  regular  ;  but  the  assembled  armies  of  Russia,  un- 
der that  old  veteran,  prince  Kutusoif,  fired  with  revenge  for 
the  smoking  ruins  of  their  country,  pressed  on  his  rear,  and 
soon  overtook  the  spoil-incumbered  foe.     Torn  with  a  suc- 
cession of  murderous  conflicts  ;  galled  by  the  distressing  rav- 
ages of  the  Cossacs  ;  stung  with  the  severites  of  a  Russian 
winter  ;  this  conqueror  became  a  fugitive  stripped  of  his  ar- 
tillery and  baggage  by  the  death  of  his  horses,  the  spoils  of 
Moscow  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians.     Pressed  by  the 
Russians,  murdered  by  the  Cossacs,  the  retreat  ofthe  French 
became  the  flight  of  a  confused  mass,  without  order,  without 
disipline,  without  supplies,  a  prey  to  death  in  every  form  ; 
destroyed  by,  and  destroying,  every  thing  in  their  route.  He 
who  so  late  had  been  the  idol,  now  became  the  reproach  of  this 
wreck  of  an  army  ;  himself  no  longer  safe  in  the  midst  of  these 
fugitives,  he  now  became  a  fugitive  and  deserted  his  myrmid- 
ons in  the  midst  of  death.  On  the  confines  ofKrasnoy,  on  the 


372 


BATTLE  OF  LEIPsIC. 


banks  of  the  Dnieper,  Napoleon,  fled ;  fled  in  disguise  ;  and 
fled  alone!  just  at  the  time,  when  the  army  of  the  Danube 
appeared  in  his  rear  to  intercept  his  flight.  Language  can- 
not paint,  imagination  cannot  conceive  of  the  distresses  of  the 
scenes  that  followed  ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  this  mighty  force, 
which  under  the  appellation  of  the  grand  army,  had  inarched 
into  Russia  victorious  ;  when  it  reached  Poland,  had  vanish- 
ed "  like  the  baseless  fabrick  ofa  vision,  and  left  not  a  wreck 
behind." 

The  army  of  Prussia  which  entered  Russia  by  the  way  of 
Riga,  returned  entire,  and  the  army  of  Austria  separated  from 
the  grand  army  in  the  retreat,  and  returned  with  great  loss  ; 
but  escaped  ruin.  Napoleon  repaired  to  Paris,  as  Charles 
XL1.  returned  through  Germany  ;  assembled  his  senate,  dis- 
closed his  losses,  and  put  the  Empire  under  afresh  requisi- 
tion, for  men,  money,  and  arms  ;  in  two  months,  assembled 
a  new  army,  put  himself  at  their  head,  and  took  the  field  in 
Saxony.  The  emperor  of  Russia,  in  the  mean  time,  entered 
Prussia,  and  joined  the  king,  with  his  victorious  army  ;  the. 
emperor  of  Austria  entered  Bohemia,  with  one  hundred  thou- 
sand men,  as  mediator  for  his  son  in  law,  Napoleon.  The 
allies  brought  into  the  field  Bernadotte,  prince  of  Pontecorvo, 
now  crown  prince  of  Sweden  ;  with  an  army  of  one  hundred 
thousand  men,  to  enter  the  lists  with  Napoleon  his  old  mas- 
ter. This  Bernadotte  was  a  distinguished  general  in  the 
Prussian  war  of  1806 — 7,  in  jiie  service  of  the  emperor  of 
France,  and  was  elected  crown  prince  of  Sweden,  when  in 
the  French  service,  upon  the  deposition  of  GustTvus  IV. 

The  sovereigns  of  Russia  arid  Prussia,  took  up  their  head- 
quarters at  Dresden,  in  Saxony.  Prince  Bernadotte,  took 
the  field,  at  the  head  of  his  Swedes  ;  the  emperor  Napoleon 
was  encamped  at  Leipsic.  Balenced  in  this  awful  state  of 
suspense,  the  armies  awaited  the  decision  of  the  emperor  of 
Austria.  When  they  were  ready  for  action,  his  mediation 
was*  closed  ;  he  declared  for  the  allies,  against  his  son  in  law 
Napoleon,  and  the  conflict  began.  The  thunders  of  Borodi- 
no were  renewed  upon  the  plains  of  Leipsic,  the  conflict  was 
desperate,  and  the  carnage  terrible.  The  French  were  true 
to  their  emperor  ;  but  the  contest  was  unequal  :  ov< 
eredby  numbers,  they  gave  way,  fled  in  disorder,  unr, 
butchered  and  destroyed,  with  a  horible  slaughter. 

The  brare  geBera]  Moreau,  whohsd  returned  from  A 
jai.  and  joined  the  crown  prince  of  Sweden,   fell  in  the  htat 


CAPTURE  OF  THE  EMPEROR  NAPOLEON.       373 

of  the  action.  The  three  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria  and 
Prussia,  beheld  the  awful  scene  from  their  quarters,  and  when 
the  victory  was  announced,  they  fell  on  their  knees,  arid 
gave  thanks  to  God.  Napoleon,  with  the  shattered  remains 
of  his  army,  fled  into  France,  and  repaired  to  Paris,  assem- 
bled the  wreck  of  his  army,  and  prepared  for  his  defence  ; 
the  allies  of  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia,  pursued  into  France, 
invested  Napoleon  in  Paris,  and  took  him  by  capitulation  ; 
stripped  him  of  his  crowns,  and  banished  him  to  the  island 
of  Elba. 

They  next  subdued  the  French  forces  in  the  west  of  Ger- 
many, established  the  sovereignty  of  Holland,  and'  restored 
the  Stadtholder.  The  English,  Portuguese  and  Spaniards, 
recovered  Portugal  and  Spain — drove  out  king  Joseph,  and 
entered  France  victorious,  under  the  duke  of  Wellington,  to 
co-operate  with  the  allies  in  the  conquest  of  Napoleon.  The 
allies  restored  the  Bourbon  family  in  the  person  of  Lewis 
XVIII.  ;  established  a  strong  force  at  Paris,  under  the  duke  of 
Wellington  ;  the  emperor  of  Russia,  and  king  of  Prussia,  vis- 
ited England — retired  to  Vienna,  and  formed  a  congress  to 
settle  the  claims  of  the  several  powers,  for  their  losses  in  the 
war. 

Nothing  had  ever  appeared  in  Europe  like  the  violence  of 
the  French  revolution.  It  had  overthrown  the  ancient  civil 
and  religious  establishments,  destroyed  the  ancient  balance  of 
power,  changed  many  of  the  ancient  limits  and  boundaries  ; 
involved  all  the  states  in  enormous  debts,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  a  labyrinth  of  claims.  The  congress  of  Vienna  had 
spent  six  months  in  settling  the  difficulties  which  had  arisen, 
when  they  were  roused  from  their  sitting,  as  by  a  clap  of  thun- 
der, with  the  news,  "  that  Napoleon  was  in  Paris',  and  at  the 
head  of  the  army."  Struck  with  alarm  they  closed  their  sit- 
ting, repaired  to  the  head  of  their  armies,  and  took  the  field. 

The  Russian  and  Austrian  armies  took  their  position  upon 
the  Rhine,  on  the  east  of  France,  to  guard  the  bridge  ofStras- 
burg.  The  English  and  Prussian  armies  were  posted  in  Flan- 
ders, with  the  English  army  in  advance,  twenty  or  thirty 
miles.  One  French  army  lay  on  the  east  to  watch  the  Rus- 
sians and  Austrians,  and  another  in  Flanders  to  watch  the 
English  and  Prussians.  The  emperor  fortified  his  capital, 
and  attempted  to  renew  the  conscription,  but  this  failed . 
France  had  lon^been  tired  of  this  wasting  conduit,  through 

32 


374  BATTLE    OP     WATERLOO. 

which  the  blood  of  her  sons  had  flowed  so  freely — he  saw 
himself  deserted  by  the  nation,  but  supported  by  the  armies. 

His  plans  were  fixed  :  he  left  Paris  in  the  night,  (according 
to  his  usual  custom,)  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
the  north,  and  commenced  an  attack  upon  the  English  army, 
under  lord  Wellington,  with  expectations  of  destroying  this 
army  at  a  blow  ;  then  the  Prussian  army  at  another  blow  ; 
and  then  the  armies  of  Russia  and  Austria  would  have  fallen 
an  easy  conquest  to  the  united  forces  of  the  victorious  empe- 
ror, and  his  popularity  would  have  enabled  him  to  renew  the 
conscription. 

The  allies  had  set  for  this  old  fox,  his  own  trap  of  Auster- 
litz  and  Borodino.  He  commenced  a  furious  assault  upon 
lord  Wellington — his  lordship  had  seen  the  French  in  Spain 
• — he  received  the  charge  of  the  French  with  firmness  :  the 
conflict  was  severe  and  obstinate  ;  the  English  retired,  and 
resisted  as  they  retired  ;  the  Prussians  advanced,  and  the  ac- 
tion continued.  On  the  second  day,  the  allies  formed  a  junc- 
tion— the  action  became  general,  and  the  carnage  was  great. 
On  the  third  day,  the  action  was  renewed  :  the  French,  ex- 
hausted with  the  long  conflict,  and  overpowered  by  numbers, 
gave  way  :  Napoleon  rallied  to  the  charge,  again  and  again  ; 
the  conflict  became  desperate — the  allies  opened  a  battery  of 
artillery  upon  the  centre  of  the  army  of  Napoleon — the  de- 
struction was  terrible  ;  he  drew  up  his  guards  to  support  his 
centre  ;  they  fell  almost  to  a  man  :  Napoleon  exclaimed  to 
the  officer  near  him  "  'tis  time  for  us  to  go."  He  fled  into 
France,  and  left  his  army  to  their  fate  ;  resigned  his  crown  to 
his  son  ;  made  for  the  sea-coast  ;  delivered  himself  up  to  the 
captain  of  an  English  ship  ;  and  was  conveyed  to  England. 

The  allies  assembled  at  Paris  ;  restored  Lewis  XVIII.  ; 
established  again  the  duke  of  Wellington,  with  a  strong  force 
to  protect  the  king — secured  the  tranquillity  of  Europe. 
The  sovereigns  again  retired  to  Vienna  ;  opened  their  con- 
gress, and  sentenced  Napoleon  to  the  Island  of  St.  Helena, 
for  life. 

The  empress  Maria  Louisa,  (upon  the  first  invasion  of 
France  by  the  allies  in  1813,)  retired  with  her  son  into  Italy, 
took  up  her  abode  at  Milan,  and  devoted  herself  to  the  care 
of  her  son  ;  who  is  now  considered  by  many  as  heir  apparent 
to  the  throne  of  France,  upon  the  demise  of  Lewis  XVIIL 


GENERAL  AFFAIRS  OF  CHRISTENDOM.        375 

CHAP.  XXII. 

General  affairs  of  Christendom. 

THE  storm  which  burst  upon  the  world  in  the  French 
revolution,  commenced  in  May,  1789,  and  raged  without  in- 
termission down  to  the  year  1815.  This  tempest  not  only 
overthrew  the  governments  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Hol- 
land, Germany,  Switzerland,  and  the  States  of  Italy  ;  but 
shook  to  their  centres  all  the  othergovernmentsin  Christen- 
dom, and  threatened  to  prostrate  the  world  to  the  dominion 
of  France. 

When  the  allied  sovereigns  triumphed  over  the  emperor 
of  France  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  and  banished  him  to  the 
islandofSt.  Helena,  for  life,  the  storm  was  completely  brok- 
en ;  but  the  tempestuous  sea  of  Europe  has  continued  to 
swell  and  rage,  from  the  terrible  effects  of  the  storm,  down  to 
the  present  time. 

Although  the  allied  sovereigns  resumed  their  congress  at 
Vienna.,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  to  finish  the  adjustment  of  all 
the  contested  claims,,  which  rose  out  of  the  war  ;  and  al- 
though they  united  in  the  confederacy,  styled  the  Holy 
League,  in  1816,  for  the  suppression  of  wars,  and  the  promo- 
tion of  peace  ;  yet  the  passions  of  men  have  been  impatient 
of  controul,  arid  bid  defiance  to  their  power. 

In  1820  a  revolution  commenced  in  Spain,  that  shook  the 
nation  to  its  foundations,  and  threatened  the  subversion  of 
the  government. — The  people  rose  in  arms  throughout  the 
kingdom,  and  entered  Madrid  in  triumph.  The  King,  (Fer- 
dinand VII.)  to  appease  the  rage  of  the  popular  fury,  swore 
to  maintain,  and  preserve  the  constitution  of  1812  ;  and  thus 
sanctioned  the  spirit  of  the  day.  This  constitution  then 
w£nt  into  operation,  and  continues  to  this  time  ;  but  the  con- 
flicting passions  of  the  nation  have  not  become  tranquil. 

In  1821  the  national  Cortez  decreed  the  abolition  of  the  in- 
quisition, together  with  all  the  religious  cloisters,  and  confis- 
cated their  estates.  They  also  decreed  the  liberty  of  the 
press. 

These  were  amongst  the  first  acts  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion, and  opened  the  way  for  all  their  subsequent  calamities. 
Similar  effects  may  possibly  result,  ultimately,  from  similar 
causes  in  Spain. 

Pending  these  events  in  Spain,  a  similar  scene  was  opened 


376  GENERAL    AFFAIRS    OF    CHRISTENDOM. 

in  Portugal,  and  similar  consequences  followed,  and  continue 
to  follow.  The  two  nations  may  still  be  considered  in  a  rev- 
olutionary state. 

The  kingdom  of  Naples  caught  the  revolutionary  fire, 
which  burst  forth  in  a  mighty  blaze.  The  people,  as  in 
Spain,  rose  in  arms,  and  threatened  the  subversion  of  the  go- 
vernment ;  but  the  house  of  Austria  interposed  with  a  strong 
military  force,  supported  the  king,  and  at  the  point  of  the 
bayonet  hushed  the  storm.  Peace  and  tranquillity  were  re- 
stored, and  continue  to  prevail. 

Pending  these  convulsions  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  the 
patriots  of  South  America  seized  the  auspicious  moment,  rose 
in  arms,  asserted  their  rights,  and  after  a  long  and  arduous 
struggle,  shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  secured  to  them- 
selves their  just  rights  amongst  the  free  and  independent  na- 
tions of  the  earth. 

Mexico  followed  the  example  of  the  kingdoms  in  South 
America  :  rose  in  arms,  shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  es- 
tablished her  independence,  1821. 

Pending  theso  mighty  struggles  for  liberty  in  Europe  and 
America,  the  fever  of  revolution  broke  out  in  England,  un- 
der the  mask  of  radical  reform,  and  threatened  thesubversion 
of  the  monarchy. 

In  the  midst  of  this  storm,  queen  Caroline,  who  had  been 
rejected  by  her  husband,  when  Prince  of  Wales,  and  become 
a  traveller  upon  the  continent,  appeared  in  England,  and  be- 
came the  rallying  point  for  the  revolutionists.  This  threw 
the  nation  into  a  high  state  of  agitation,  and  the  Queen,  to  re- 
venge on  her  husband,  fanned  the  flame. 

To  allay  this  storm,  a  trial  was  instituted  against  the  Queen, 
upon  the  statute  of  pains  and  penalties,  which  spun  out  to  a 
great  length ;  the  nation  was  convulsed,  and  the  king  tottered 
upon  his  throne.  To  appease  the  popular  rage,  and  lay 
the  storm,  the  trial  of  the  Queen  was  closed,  by  an  adjourn- 
ment for  six  months,  and  the  nation  became  calm. 

The  King  embraced  the  favorable  moment,  and  caused  a 
day  to  be  proclaimed  for  his  public  coronation.  This  divert- 
ed the  attention  of  all  parties,  and  the  passions  of  the  people 
were  swallowed  up  in  the  splendid  shew  of  a  coronation  day, 
July,  1821.  The  Queen  was  rejected. 

This  shock  was  more  than  the  Queen  could  sustain  ;  she 
sunk  under  the  disappointment,  and  with  her  death  sealed 
the  tranquillity  of  the  nation.  Her  remains  were  removed 


to  Germany, 


GENERAL   AFFAIRS   OF   CHRISTENDOM.  377 

to  Germany,  and  deposited  with  those  of  her  friends  of  the  il- 
lustiious  house  of  Brunswick. 

To  close  this  solemn  scene,  the  great  Napoleon,  emperor  of 
France,  and  conqueror  of  Europe,  died  in  his  confinement  up- 
on the  Island  of  M.  Helena.*  "  Yet  he  shall  come  to  his  end 
and  none  shall  help  him." — Daniel  xi.  45. 

*  The  fallowing;  is  an  interesting  account  given  by  Dr.  Antomarchi, 
Napoleon's  Physician. 

"  Bonaparte  occupied  himself  often  with  gardening ;  and  under 
his  immediate  superintendance,  bowers  and  grottoes  were  erected 
in  his  garden  at  Longwood.  Gen.  Bertrand,  Madame  Bertrand, 
with  the  children,  and  Dr.  Antomarchi,  assisted  him  on  such  occa- 
sions. His  usual  dress  was  that  of  a  Chinese  gardener :  nankins 
and  a  large  straw  hat.  Within  the  last  eight  months  of  his  life  he 
could  scarcely  move  out,  and  was  obliged  either  to  rest  on  the  sofa, 
or  in  his  easy  chair ;  he  suffered  considerably,  and  was,  in  conse- 
qn  ^nc-  ,  considerably  morose  ;  he  had  lost  full  two  thirds  of  his  cor- 
pulence. 

"  Durirg  his  illness  his  son  was  the  principal  topic  of  his  conver- 
sation ;  he  never  conversed  on  politics,  at  least  the  Doctor  said  so. 
Two  priests  were  sent  to  him  by  his  mother,  one  an  old  man,  (Buona- 
vita)  and  the  other  a  young  ma;;  Since  their  arrival  mass  was  read 
every  day  at  Longwood,  and  the  Doctor  said  "  It  est  enbon  Cre- 
tien."  Bonaparte  expressed  much  disgust  at  the  old  priest's  smel- 
ling of  tobacco — he  disliked  smoking  and  smokers.  He  had  errr<-ely 
left  off  taking  snuff.  You  have  seen  it  noticed  in  the  papers  that  he 
sent  a  present  to  lady  Holland.  The  circumstances  that  led  to  it 
are  highly  honorable  to  her  ladyship.  Lady  Holland  was  never  per- 
sonally known  to  Bonaparte,  *  but  since  his  confinement  she  had 
been  unremitting  in  her  attention  to  him,  by  constantly  provi  ug 
him  with  articles  for  his  table,  which  she  thought  would  be  ;t< 
able  to  him  ;  also  by  sending  him  books,  and  contributing  b. 
other  ways  to  his  domestic  comfort.  He  sent  her  a  Cameo  of 
value,  as  a  token  of  gratitude ;  it  was  on  a  snuff  box  which  the  Pope 
presented  to  Napoleon. 

"  The  veneration  with  which  the  Doctor  spoke  of  him  is  beyond 
any  thing  of  the  sort  1  ever  witnessed.  {Speaking  of  Bertrand,  he 
always  styles  him  (le  grand  Marechal.)  Madam  Bertrand  \\  s  al- 
ways allowed  to  enter  his  room  without  being  announced, 
leon  was  quite  resigned  to  die  at  St.  Helena — he  often  convc  •  >od 
with  Antomarchi  of  events  of  his  earliest  age,  and  recollected  the 
most  trifling  acts  of  his  childhood.  The  Doctor  being  a  ualh  '  of 
Corsica,  they  generally  conversed  together  in  the  idiom  of  the 
island,  which  was  quite  familiar  to  Napoleon.  The  house  at  Long- 
wood  was  exceedingly  small  and  uncomfortable,  an-1  damp  ' 
conception;  the  new  "bouse  was  M  and  it  was  Bona- 

parte's intention,  had  he  lived,  never  to  inhabit  it." 

33 


378  GENERAL    AFFAIRS    OF    CHRISTENDOM. 

Pending  these  convulsions  of  Christendom,  an  insurrection 
broke  out  in  Turkey  in  Europe,  which  gave  serious  alarm  to 
the  sublime  Porte,  and  still  threatens  to  prostrate  the  crescent, 
and  subvert  the  government. 

The  Greeks  who  were  the  immediate  instruments  of  this  in- 
surrection, have  maintained  a  desperate  conflict,  in  the  unequal 
strife,  and  the  Emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  have  given 
them  all  such  support,  as  could  be  afforded  without  open  hos- 
tilities. 

Persia  is  said  to  have  availed  herself  of  these  commotions 
in  Europe,  and  opened  a  war  upon  Turkey  on  the  east,  for 
the  purpose  of  recovering  her  ancient  possessions,  and  hum- 
bling the  gigantic  power  of  Turkey. 

What  will  be  the  issue  of  these  mighty  events,  time  only  can 
unfold.* 

During  the  continuance  of  these  eventful  struggles  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  South  America,  the  affairs  of  the  United  States  con- 
tinue to  roll  on  prosperously. 

The  successful  close  of  the  Seminole  war  in  1818,  opened 
the  way  for  the  cession  of  the  Floridas  to  the  United  States, 
and  the  settlement  of  the  boundary  line  between  the  United 
States  and  Spanish  America,  and  hushed  the  storm  which 
threatened  the  peace  of  the  two  nations,  by  an  amicable  adjust- 
ment, 1821. 

The  strife  of  party  which  raised  the  storm  in  Congress  upon 
the  Missouri  question,  and  arrayed  the  north  against  the  south, 
was  amicably  settled  by  the  admission  of  the  state  of  Missouri 
into  the  Union  in  1821. 

The  conflicts  of  party  in  the  United    States,  have  hithert 
been  overruled  in   great   wisdom ;  they  have  enlightened  the 
people,  and  strengthened  the  government. 

Amidst  the  numerous   improvements  of  the  United  States 
none  have  appeared  of  equal  magnitude  with  the  great    nort 
ern  and  western  canals  of  the  state  of  New-York.     The  fi 
has  opened  a  communication  between   the  Hudson   and    St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  latter  between  the  Hudson  and  Mississippi, 
and  rendered  th,e  city  of  New-York  tb*   preat   local   point  o 
commerce  for  Nwrth  America.     This  will  also  render  her  t 
London  of  America. 

*     For  a  more  particular  illustration  of  this  subject,  see  Per- 
sia and  Tartary,  in  appendix  to  part  1,  pages  50,  54. 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  EUROPE. 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  ENGLAND. 

Wit  have  noticed  in  our  remarks  upon  England,  the  decided  sove- 
reignty of  the  island,  at  and  before  the  Roman  invasion  ;  that  during  the 
period  of  nearly  five  centuries,  the  Romans  kept  the  peace  between 
the  petty  sovereigns,  and  when  they  withdrew  their  power,  the  Saxons, 
under  Hengis  and  Horsa,  seized  on  the  island  ;  and  subdued  all  these 
small  hordes  under  the  dominion  of  the  Heptarchy,  and  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  representative  government. 


The  union   of  this    Heptarchy,   under 
Alfred  the   great,  was   also  noticed, 
•who  may    be    fairly  styled   the   first 
English  monarch,  and  laid  ihe  foun- 
dation of  the  government.                        380 
Alfred  was  succeeded  by   his    son   Ed- 
ward the  elder,          ...              9,'0 
Athelstan,         925 

Henry  II[. 
Kdward  1.      ... 
Kdward  If. 
Edward  III. 
Richard  11. 

1216 
1272 
1307 
13-26 
1377 
1399 
1412 
1422 
1460 
1483 
1483 
1435 
1509 
1546 
1553 
1553 
1602 
1635 
1648 
1685 
1688 
1702 
1714 
1727 
1760 
1811 

758 

Ho 

Henry  IV. 
Henry  V. 
Henry  VI  

Edmund  94  1 
Edr^d,                918 
Edwy,         .            ....             955 

Edward  IV. 
Edward  V           .              . 
Richard  III. 
HenrvVII  
Henry  VIII  
Kdward  VI. 
Mary          

Edgar  950 
Edward  the  Martyr,               .         .             975 
Kthetred.                                                        978 
Edmond  Ironside,          .         .        .           1016 
f'annte  the  Dane,  Danish  line,         .        1017 
Harold  Harefoot,  Danish  line,     .       .     1035 
Hardicanute,  Danish  line,        .        .       1039 
Edwnrd  the  Confessor,           .         .           1041 
Harold,         1086 

James  I-                                   . 
Ch.rlesl  
Charles  II. 
J-rnesIf  

William  the  conqueror,  Danish  line,      1066 
Wilt-am  Rufus,        ....         1087 

William  and  Mary, 
Ann  

Henry  I  HOO 
Stephen,             .             .            .                    1135 
HenrvII  1154 
Richard  I.           ...             .         1139 

George  II.           .          .           . 
George  III. 
Regency  of  the  Prince  of  Wales, 

3F  FRANCE. 

Pepin,  son  «f  Charles, 
Charlemagne, 
Lewis,  Debonnoir,    .        .        . 

SOVEREIGNS  < 

\ye  bave   noticed    the   origin    of   the 
kingdom  of  the    Franks,  or   France, 
urtder     Pharomond  —  who      led      his 
Franks  over  the  tUiine,   in  the  fifth 
centnry    ;    from     whom     descended 
Clevis  —  who  commenced  his  reign,       436 
The    next  sovereign  worthy   of  notice 

Lewis  II  
Charles  th«  bald, 
Lewis  the  Stammerer,    . 
Lewis  III         3  .           ... 
Charles  the  fat, 
Cnarlss  ill. 

856 
875 
.    877 
879 
.  884 
898 
922 
923 

Clotairll  81* 
Darobert,        .....          63t 
644 

Pepiu  HeriBtel.  lM^va, 
Charle.  Martel,5MaVaS                            ?»4 
End.  of  the  first  race  of  Kings. 

Lewis  the  «tranger,         .         .         •    936 
Lotbario.             ....           954 
LftwiiVI  966 
End  of  the  tteond  ract  of  Kings* 

380 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  EUROPE. 


Hu<rh  Capet  
Robert  
Henrv  I                                      . 

987 
4l9ri 
1»31 
1059 
1106 
1  37 
1180 
1223 
1-226 
1271 
1-285 
1314 
1316 
1316 
13  K 
13-  '8 
1350 

1357 
1364 

1385 

Charles  VII          .... 
Henry  VI.  of  England,     . 
Lewis  XI          .... 
Charles  VIII 

1430 
1461 
1483 
1498 
1515 
1559 
1560 
1574 
1589 
1610 
1643 
1651 
1715 
vo- 
.     1774 
s  — 
1795 
1804 
1814 

Philip  I      .         .                  .         . 

Lewis  VI  
Lewis  VII  
Phi'ip  11  —  styled  august,     . 
Lewis  VIII           .... 
Lewi?  IX  
Philip  III—  styled  hardy, 
Philip  IV  —styled  the  fair,     . 
Lew.sX           ..... 
John  I                    ... 

Lewis  XII  
Francis  I.            .            ... 
Francis  II. 
Charles  IX  
Henrr  III  
Henrv  IV.           . 
Lewis  XIII. 
Lewis  XIV.  ten  years  of  age, 
crowned, 
Lewis  XV.         .                  .         . 
Lewjs  XV  1  ^-Guillotined  in  the  rt 
lution, 
Lewis   XVII    aged   eleven    year 
Poisoned  in  the  revolution, 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Emperor,     . 
1  Lewis  XVIII.         . 

Philip  V  —  surnamed  the  Long,     . 
Charles   IV.  —  styled  the  fair, 
Philip  VI. 
John  H.         ... 

Edward  III.  of  England  —  by  consan 
{riiimty,  and  by  conquest, 
Vsarles  V.                              . 
Charles  VI  

SOVEREIGNS  OF  SPAIN. 


Sovereigns  of  Spain,  under  the  Visi- 
goths, who  founded  their  kingdom 
in  Spain,  ...  467 

Their  barbarous  superstition  render- 
ed Spain  one  Continued  scene  of 
bvitebery,  nearly  300  years;  in 
which  time,  ber  kings  fell,  in  such 
rapid  succession  as  to  leave  not 
more  than  three  or  four  on  record, 
•worthy  of  notice. 

Lov«gild,  .         .       ,  .         .         .480 

Sissbut,         .         .         .         .         .          600 

Wamba 680 

Pelagius,  ....  'OP 

Abdurahman,  Caliph  of  the  Moors,       756 
Spain,  during  three  centuries,  contin- 
ued divided  into  a  great  Bumber  of 
small  kingdoms,  until  they  began  to 


be    united    under   -Ferdina 

great 

Sancho  ..... 
Alphonso,  ... 

AlpbonsoVII 
Alphonso  VIII.  •        • 

Sancho  III 

Ferdinar-1  II,—  died  suddenly, 
Alphonso  IX.         ... 
Henrv  1  .... 


the 


1027 
>065 
1072 
1209 
H2-J 
11M 
1158 
1158 
1214 


Ferdinand   [II. 
Alphonso  X. 
ham: bo  IV. 


Mphonso  Xf          .  . 

Peter  the  cruel, 

Henry  II 

John  I 

Henry  III 

John  II 

HenM  IV 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 

Philip  I 

Chirles  I. — Emperor  Charles  V. 

Philip  II 

Philip  III. 

Philip  IV 

Ch   rTe<  II 

Philip  V 

Ferdinand  VI.      .         .         ,         .          j72& 

Charles  III 1746 

Charles  IV 1788 

resigned  to  Ferdinand  VII.    1808 

Botb,  by  intrigues  of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon,  resigned  to  Joseph  Bo- 
naparte,   1308 

Ferdinand  restored,    .         .         .         1313 


1216 
3252 
1284 
1289 
1312 
1350 
1368 
1379 
1390 
1466 
1454 
J474 
1504 
1516 
1555 
1591 
1612 
1066 


EMPERORS  OF  GERMANY-beginning  icith  Charlemagne. 


Chi>   i^magne,         ....        8dO 

Lotb-,rio  1 840 

Lewis  II 855 

Charles  the  bald,         ...  874 

Chr.rhsthe  fat,      .      '    .         .         .879 

Arnold 888 

Lewis  IV   at  seven  years  of  age,          899 

End  oftht  7*ce  of  Charlemagne. 
Conrad  I.  of  rJermany,         .         .  911 

Henry  1.  of  Saxony,        .         .         .918 
Otho  1  — styled  great,        .         .  93- 

Othoil.             .    '     .         .         .         .973 
Otho  III.      .  9SS 

Henry  It 1092 


Conrad  II. 

Henry  III. 

Henry  IV. 

Henrv  V.     .         . 

Lothario  II.      . 

Conrad  III. 

Frederic  I. 

Henry  VI.     . 

Philip.       . 

Otho  IV. 

Frederic  II. 

' .  onrad  IV. 

Rodolph  of  Hapsburg. 

Adolphiu  of  Nassau,     . 


10-74 
1039 
1055 
1106 
1225 
1137 
1151 
1190 
1197 
1-208 
1212 
1250 
1273 
1291 


SOVEREIGNS    OP   EUROPE. 


381 


Albert  I.  of  Austria,         .          .  J293 

Henry  VII 1309 

Frederic  the  handsome.  <$•  Lewis  V.  1315 

Lewis  V 132-2 

Charles  IV 1347 

Winreslaug,             ....  1378 

Robert,  Count  Palatine,     .        .  1399 
Sigi-iinund,         .         .'        .         .         .1411 

Aloe,  t  IF.  of  Austria,     .         .         .  1438 

Fred-ric  III 1440 

Maximilian  I.          ,  1493 

Charles  V.King  of  Spain,         .         .  15l9 

Ferdinand  I          ....  1558 

Maximilian  II 1564 


Rodolphll 1576 

Matb.aa 1612 

Ferdinand  II 1619 

Ferdinand  III 1639 

Leopold,  1 1«56 

Joseph  1 1705 

CharlesVI 1712 

Cbarles  VII   of  Bavaria,      .        .  '742 

Francis  I.  of  Lorrain.       .         .         .  1745 

Joseph  II 1765 

Leopold  II.         •         •         m.    •  179° 

Francis  II.     .        .        .  W        .  1792 

now  on  the  throne,  1813 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  RUSSIA. 


Peter  1 163'J 

Catherine  1 1725 

Peter  1 1 1727 

Anne 1730 

John  the  infant,  .         .         .  1740 

Elizabeth,         ....  1741 


Peter  III. 
Catherine  II. 

Paul 

Alexander, 

now  on  the  throne, 


1762 
1763 
1796 
1800 
1818 


SCOTLAND. 

THE  antiquity  of  Scotland's  Kings  stands  unrivalled  in  Europe  ;  she 
boasts  her  royal  line  of  Kings,  from  Fergus  I.  ;  who  settled  in  Scot- 
land as  early  as  the  subversion  of  the  Medo- Persian  empire,  by  Alex- 
ander ;  three  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  Christ.  She  claims  a 
regular  succession  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen  Kings,  through  a  period  of 
one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  thirty-two  years,  down  to  the  time  of 
her  union  with  England,  under  James  1. 1602  ;  and  from  thence  to  the 
confirmed  union  of  1707,  when  the  crown  of  Scotland  was  united  with 
the  crown  of  England  under  the  title  of  Great  Britain. 

The  history  of  this  nation,  in  connexion  with  the  history  of  England, 
has  claimed  and  received  our  attention  A  list  of  her  Kings,  would 
swell  the  size  of  this  work  without  advantage  ;  since  her  political  ex- 
istence has  become  incorporated  with  England. 

SOVEREIGNS  OF   POLAND. 


SigismuBd,        ....  (583 

JJladislaus,  ....  1633 

John  II.  ...  1648 

Michael,  .  ...  16€9 

Frederic  II.'  Elector  of  Saxony,  1697 

Stanislaus  I.         ....  1704 
Frederic  II.  restored,     .         .         .      1710 


Frederic  HI 1733 

Stanislaus  II.  ...  1764 

tell  with  the  partition  of 
Poland,   between   Russia,    Austria 

and  Prussia ;795 

died  at  Petersburg,         1793 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  SWEDEN. 


Gustavui  Vasa, 

15/3 
1592 
.      lr06 

.        lt-33 

.    ir!5t 

1699 

33* 

Ulrica,  Charles'  sister,        .        .         1718 
Adolp  us.        .                                         i75i 
IT-US  »vut  iii.       •         .         t         .         1771 
murdered  by  count  An- 
Ucrstroin 
Gusiavii«  IV    deposed,         .         .          1793 
CKarle^  XIII  1809 
Gen.  Bernadotte  crowned  Prince,      1910 

Cbarlr,  IX  

Gustitvus  Adolphus, 
Christiana,  ->ix  years  of  age, 
Charles  Gustavus  X. 
Charles  XI    aged  four  y  ars, 
Charles  XII.  fifteen  yearn  of  age 

382 


SOVEREIGNS    OP   EUROPE. 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  DENMARK. 


Frederic  I. 
Christian  III. 
Frederic  II. 
Christian  IV. 
Frederic  III. 
Christian  V. 


15. -3 
1554 
1558 
1559 
1648 
1670 


Frederic  IV 1698 

Christian  VI.           ...  1730 

Frederic  V 1746 

Christian  VII 1807 

Frederic  VI.  now  on  the  throne,  181 1 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  PORTUGAL, 


AlpbonsoHenriquez,  first  King 
His  line  held  the  throne,  witi 
interruption,  down  to  John  I. 

1139 

i  little 
1385 
J414 

Philip  II.  King  of  Spain, 
J.bn  HI.                      ... 
John  IV  

John  II. 

1464 

Peter  II 

Emanuel  I.        ... 

1495 

JotnV  

Henry  the  Cardinal, 



Mary,             . 

1581 

1640 
1646 
1633 
1708 
1750 
1777 


SOVEREIGNS  OF  PRUSSIA, 


Frederic  I. 
Frederic  II. 
Frederic  III. 


1701  I  Frederic  IV. 
1713  I  Frederic  V. 
1740 


1786 
1798 


PRESIDENTS  AND  VICE-PRESIDENTS  OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


PRESIDENTS. 

aeorge  Washington,        .          .  J789 

re-elected,        .  1793 

JebnAdaou 1797 

Thomas  Jeffenon,        .        .        .  1801 

re-elected,        .  .  1805 

James  Madi»on,        .        •        •  1809 

re-elected     .         .  1813 

James  Monroe,        .        .        .  1817 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


John  A  dams, 

re-elected, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Aaron  Burr, 
George  Clinton, 

re-elected 
K  (bridge  Gerry, 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins, 


1789 
1793 
1797 
1801 
1805 
1809 
1813 
1817 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL 
TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PART  FIRST. 


s-ROM    THE    CREATION,   TO   THE   SUBVERSION   OF    THE   ROMAN   EM- 
PIRE, 450. 

CHAP.  I. 

History— its  division  and  use -from  the  creation  to  the  flood— thence  to 

the  building  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon. 

A. M.  paffe 

Introductory  remarks,                                «...  5 

1  The  creation  ot'  the  universe,             ....  6 

The  happv  state  of  man,             ...  u 

The  apostacy,                                                         .  u 

The  curse  that  followed.                .                 .                 .                 t  ,, 

A  ransom  promised  in  the  seed  of  the  woman,                   .  .. 

The  employment  and  wretchedness  of  man,                .                ,  i. 

Worship  by  sacrifice  early  instituted,                .                  .  >j 

129  The  first  war — Cain  slew  his  brother  Abel,                .  ... 

God  the  judge  and  avenger  of  blood.                                 .  ,, 

Violence  marked  the  character  of  the  old  world,                .  '      .. 

1656  Noah,  the  ark,  and  the  deluge,                .                 .  ,, 

1657  Noah  and  his  family  began  to  people  the  earth,        .                .  ... 

The  employment  of  men, 

1770  The  building  of  Babylon  and  Nine»eh,                .  „ 
The  influence  of  these  cities  on  the  manners  ef that  age,  and  their  conquests  •• 

General  religious  character  of  man,                .                               .  '  ,4 

CHAP.  II. 

From  the  call  of  Abraham  and  his  family,  to  the  death  of  Joseph  his 
grandson  in  Egypt. 

1931  God  called  Abram  to  found  his  church,                .                 .  g 

1871  God  tried  the  faith  of  Abraham  in  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  .        9 

Hagar  and  Ishmael  rejected,                 ...  ,, 

The  angel  comforted  Hagar  with  the  promise  of  God,        .  « 

Character  of  the  Arabs,  his  descendants,                .  ,, 

3837  Marriage  of  liaac— birth  and  character  ot  Esau  and  Jacob,  •> 

1821   Death  of  Abraham — Jacob  and  his  twelve  son?,                .                .  .. 

J716  Death  of  Isaac,  .  .  ..... 

Jacob  wrestles  with  the  angel,  and  obtains  the  name  of  Israel,        .  .          n 

Jacob's  partiality  to  Joseph  causes  his  brethren  to  sell  him,         .  .              •» 

_        Joseph's  character  and  trials  in  Egypt,                ...  ]0 

1715  Is  raised  to  power,  and  next  ta  the  king,                 .                   •                .  •• 

.1707  Sends  for  his  father's  family  down  into  Egypt,                 .                 .  «. 

1699  Where  good  old  Jacob,  or  Israel  died,  ., 

And  w»s  conveyed  by  hi»  bon«  !o  Canaan  and  entombed,                .  >      jj 

1635  Joiepb  and  bit  brethren— bii  character— death  and  prophecy, 


384  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  III. 

From  the  death  of  Joseph,  to  the  call  of  Moses— the  plagues  in  Egypt— 
the  departure  of  the.  Hebrews  under  Moses  and  Aaron,  and  the  de- 
struction of  Pharaoh  at  the  Red  Sea. 

B.  C.  Page 

1577   Commencement  of  a  new  era  in  the  family  of  Abraham,  ...            12 

Oppression  of  his  descendants  by  the  destruction  of  the  children,        .                 •« 

1571    Moses  born,  and  hid  in  the  flags  of  the  river,                .  .                            •• 

His  preservation  and  education,                                 ,  .                .                   «' 

He  kils  an  Egyptian,  and  flies  into  Midian,                 .  .                .              '-« 

1491    Is  commissioned  by  God  from  the  burning  bush,  .                   .                   13 

Moses  and  Aaron  stand  before  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt,  and  demand  the 

dttliverance  of  the  Hebrews,                 .  " 

Confirm  t*'eir  commission  by  miracles,             .                 .  .                             •« 

1491    These  compel  Pharaoh  to  send  away  the  Hebrews,  .                .                  14 

Pharaoh  pursues — the  miracle  of  the  Red  Sea,  .        " 

The  triumphant  song  of  the  children  of  Israel, 

CHAP.  IV. 

From  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  to  the  giving  of  the  Moral  Law  at 
mount  Sinai— the  death  of  Moses  and  Aaron— the  possession  of  the 
land  of  Canaan  under  Joshua,  and  the  change  of  government  under 
their  kings. 

B.C. 

General  remarks— displays  of  Mount  Sinai,                .                     .  15 

^  The  idolatrous  apostacy  of  Aaron,  and  the  camp  of  Israel,                   .  16 
Moses  in  his  wrath  breaks  the  tables  of  the  Moral  Law,  punishes  the  idola- 
ters, and  returns  into  the  Mount,  where  God  inscribed  two  other  tables 

as  before.                 -.                                                   .  «« 

Moses  gives  offence  to  God  at  the  waters  of  Meribah,                 .                .  " 

J451    Death  of  Aaron  and  Moses,  and  appointment  of  Joshua,                 .                 .  •• 

to    Remarks — passage  of  tne  river  Jordan,                 ...  •« 
i453    Miraculous  reduction  of  Jericho,                  ....•' 

The  400  years  sojourning'  predicted  by  God  to  Abraham,  closed,                .  " 

Death  of  all  over  20  years  of  a^e  in  the  wilderness,                                   .  17 
Division  of  Canaan— Their  form  of  government — Their  happy  state — Their 

idolatry  and  corruption,                                    •                  «                  •                  .  " 

General  remarks,                .                       «  18 

CHAP.  V. 

Change  of  Jewish  Theocracy  to  the  government  of  their  kings — disper- 
sion of  the  ten  tribes,  by  Psalmanazer — remarks. 

1095   Saul,  the  first  kin- of  Israel  anointed  by  Samuel,                 .                 .  19 
1085    David  the  Shepherd  king  — to  Ih^  exclusion  of  Saul, 

1015   Solemon— the  temple — and  rumple  worship.                 .  " 

$75    Rehoboam,  and  the  division  of  the  tribes,         ...  •' 

721   Dispersion  of  the  ten  tribes  hy  Psalmanazer,         ...  20 

The  prophrcy  oPMoses  fulfilled.  •• 

Conjectures  upon  the  ten  tribes— remarks,         .                .                .  *• 

CHAP.  VI. 

Destruction  of  Nineveh — conquest  of  Nebuchadnessar — siege  of  Tyre-" 


CONTENTS.  385 

conquest  of  Egypt — captivity  of  the  two  tribes~-displays  of  God  in 
Babylon. 

B.  C.  Page 

Destruction  of  Nineveh,  and  union  of  Chaldea  and  Assyria,  21 

600  Captivity  of  the  tribes  of  ludah  and  Benjamin,  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  .       22 

Displays  of  God  in  Babylon,                                                                           .  " 

569  Humiliation  of  Nebuchadnezzar,             ....  93 

662    His  restoration  and  gratitude  to  God,            .                   .  " 

General  remarks,  ..... 

CHAP.  VII. 

Conqueet  of  Cyrus— fall  of  Bahy!<>n— restoration  of  the  Jews— expedition 

of  Darius— of  Xerxes— pass  ofThermop^cn. 
•  B.  C. 

562  Death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  succession  of  Belahazzar,                  .  24 

555  C/axares  and  Cyrus  wage  successful  war"with  Belshaz/.ar — and  Babylon 

538     i»  .ubdued  by  Cyrus,  ....  .25 

536  Cyrus  lays  the  foundation  of  the  Medo- Persian  empire                                   .  " 

Delivers  the  Jews  from  captivity,  and  restores  them  to  their  land ,          .  " 

529  His  reign   aad  death,                 .....  26 

500  Darius— his  expedition  and  overthrow  in  Scythia,         .                 •  " 

481  Xerxas — his  expedition  into  Greece,                 .                        .                .  27 

Characterof  the  Greeks,                 .         ,                  .                         ,  " 

Leonidas  at  the  Pass  of  Thermopylae, 

Naval  action  of  Salamin,                  .                          .  " 

GUrious  victory  of  Platea,                .                 .                 .                .  " 

Civil  war  in  Persia,  between  Cyrus  the  younger,  and  Artaxerxes,         .  28 

The  Greeks  engage  a«  auxiliaries,                  .                .                 .  '* 

341   Defeatand  death  of  Cyrus,  and  retreat  of  10,000  Greeks,                   .  •• 

Improvements  in  Greece,                  .                  .                  .                  .                   .  •• 

340  The  ambition  and  death  of  Philip  king  of  Macedon,          .  28 

336  Rise  and  character  of  Alexander  his  son  and  successor,                 .  " 

CHAP.  VIII. 

Expedition  of  Alexander — -fall  of  the  Persian  Monarchy. 
B.C. 

View  of  the  vision  of  the  prophet  Daniel,  ...  36 

335  Alexander  begins  the  conquest  of  Asia,         .  .  " 

Battle  of  the  Granicus,  .  .  " 

Battle  of  Usus— flight  of  Darius  king  of  Persia,        ...  31 

Siege,  and  conquest  of  Tyre — Conquest  of  F.gvpt,  .  " 

Alexander  returns  into  Syria,  and  visits  Jerusalem, 

Fs  confirmed  in  bis  ambition  by  the  Jewish  scriptures,  .         32 

330  He  proceeds  into  Persia — fights  the  battle  of  Arbela,  routs  and  destroys 

Darius,  and  conquers  Babylon,  .  " 

CHAP.  IX. 

Alexander  establishes  the  empire  of  the  Greeks  upon  the  ruin  of  the  Per- 
sian—dies— division  of  the.  Grecian  empire — rise  of  the  Roman  empire 
— of  the  Carthagenian— their  -wars— fall  of  Carthage — revolutions  of 
the  Roman  empire. 
B.C. 

323  Alexander  subdues  the  eastern  and  northern  provinces,  .  33 

Establishes  the  Grecian,  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Persian  government,  bat  re- 
tains the  Persian  customs  and  manners— kills  Chtus  and  Cft!i»thene«, 
323  He  diedn  the  midflt  cf  libentiousnetn. 

His  four  principal  gt-nera Is  divided  his  empire, 

Antiochus,  one  of  the  Selucidw  of  Syria,  distresees  the  Jewi,  and  the  war? 


386  CONTENTS. 

B.  C.  Pas 

of  Syria  and  Epypt  are  almost  perpetual  down  te  the  conquest  of  the 
Romans — yet  Ishmael  dwells  safe — remarks, 
Origin  of  the  Romuns,  . 

Trojan  war,  and  Grecian  colony,  .... 

Homer  the  father  of  epic  poetry,  .... 

J213  Carthage  founded  by  Dido  from  Tyre, 
753   Romulus  founds  Rome,  ..... 

Wars  of  Carthage  and  Rome,  .... 

Their  jjorernmeuts  And  wars  continued,  .... 

241  Hamilcar  and  Hannio»f — End  yf  the  first  ptinic  war, 

Hannibal  carries  his  arms  into  Italy,  and  Scipio  carries    the    Roman 
arms  into  Africa.  ..... 

201  Second  Punic  war  closed,  .  .  . 

Commencement  of  the  th«rd  Punic  war, 
Distressing  s«isre  of  Carihage,  .... 

146  Decree  of  the  Roman  Senate,  fall  and  ruin  of  Carthage, 

The  Romans  distribute  the  spoils  of  Carthage  to  all  the  nations  who 
claim  tlieir  own,  .  ... 

They  conquer  Greece,  Kjypt,  the  west  of  Asia,  and  ol"  Europe, 
Civil  war  of  Cesar  and  Pompey, 
47  Triumph  of  Cesar,  defeat,  flight  and  death  of  Pompey, 

Fatal  effects  of  corrupt  ambition,  .... 

Fall  of  Cato,  of  Roman  liherty,  and  of  Cesar, 

Fresh  ciril  waia  at  Rome,       '       .  .  . - 

Fail  of  Brutu?  and  '  as.-ius — \nthony  and  Tully, 

Augustus  Cesar  becomes  emperor,  ntid  gives  peace  to  the  world, 

CHAP.  X. 

Advent  of  the  Me?siah — his  life  and  dvctrines,  death  and  resurrection' 
prophecy  upon  JerU84tcm~de8truction  of  Jerusalem  -dispersion  ofti 
Jews — division  of  the  Roman  empire  —  rise  of  the  papal  potoer. 

The  whole  system  of  prophecy  fulfilled  in  the  advent  of  the  Messiah, 
His  benevolent  example,  instructions  and  doctrines,  . 

His  sufferings,  death,  resurrection  and  ascension, 
His  pro;;hecy  upon  Jerusalem,  .  .  • 

His  commission  of  .Saul  of  Tarsus,  his  reproof  of  Pharisaical  hypocrisy, 
Jiiflgnaents  up»n  the  Jews,  and  Jerusalem,  .  .  .  42 

70  Their  overthrow  and  ruin,  ...  42 

«>37  The  Romans  in  Palestine,  subdued  by  the  Saracens,  .  • 

The  Jews  which  remained,  again  distressed,  and  the  whole  natiou  in  their 
dispersion  preparing  to  laturn  to  Palestine,  where  they  will  be  born  by 
the  spirit  of  Christ  into  the  faith  of  the  gospel, 

The  true  church  of  Christ,  his  peculiar  care,  ,  .  .  43 

Her  triumphs  in  the  roidst  of  persecutions, 
Her  d«ep  humility  under  the  barbarians  and  popes, 

420  Ri»e  of  the  Franks,  or  French  ;  their  connection  with  the  papacy — Char- 
acter and  title  of  the  pope,  ....  4/> 
His  means  of  revenue  from  indulgencies  and  purgatory, 

CHAP.  XI. 

Kingdom  of  Charlemagne — of  Mahomet — of  the  Turks— fall  of  the 

Roman  empire  at  Constantinople. 
A.  D. 

800  Charlemagne  king  of  the  Franks,  and  emperor  of  the  West,  •  46 

1095  Peter  the  hermit  preaches  the  first  crusade,   or  holy  war — Character   of 

this  war.  and  of  the  natians  ensrayed  in  it,  .  . 

606   I?  fee  of  Mahomet.  "     •  .  .  47 

His  ci.i  rActer.  religion,  bible  orkoran,  nod  conquests, 
1450  Rise  of  the  Turks  and  conquest — Remarks, 


CONTENTS.  387 

9JK 

APPENDIX  TO  PART  FIRST. 
PERSIA. 

B.  C.  Pag* 

536  Founded  by  Cyrui,  revolutions  considered,  .  .  .50 

A.  D    1300  Jenffhis  Ma,i  found*  the  Mogul's  empire,  .  .  « 
1399  TatnerJa-ie  confirms  his  power,                  ...  " 
1732  Kouli  Khan  subverts  it,,               .....'•• 
1735  And  the  Hindostan— Re  m  arks,                 .                                                                51 

CHINA. 

B.  C. 

2207  Founded  by  prince  Yao  or  Yu— their  character,  .  .  51 

A.  D    1635    Tartars  mcade  China,  break  over  their  walls  and  subdue  it, 

Population,  government,  &.c  .  ...  52 

1586  China  visited  by  the  Portuguese,  .....•• 

1692  The  Pope  sends  missionaries  to  China,  ..." 

17-J-2  They  are  expelled,  .  .  " 

1792  The'English  smd  an  embassav  to  China,  .  .  " 

HINDOSTAN. 

A    D. 

1497  The  Portuguese  firU  discover  Hindustan,  ..." 

1506  They  build  the  city  of  Goa.  .  .  •• 

159!    Visited  by  the   En^li.h,  .  .  .  •• 

15(>0  They  form  their  fir»t  East  India  Company  .  .  " 

16V8  They  form  their  second,  ....'• 

1700  They  r«n«w  tbeir  6rst  charter,  and  proceed  to  establish  their  government,       " 
1595  The  Dutch  commence  their  India  trade,  •• 

161.?  The  Danes  commenC'-  their  India  trade,  ...  .'.'•• 

1738  Causes  of  the  successful  lettlemeiHs  in  Hindustan,  .  •  *• 

1763  The  French  cede  Pondicherry  to  the  English,  .  .  •  54 

Character  of  the  religiou  of  India,  and   the    successful   efforts  of  Christian 
missionaries,  .  .  .  .  .  " 

TARTARY. 

Ancient  name  and  character  of  this  country,  ...  54 

Their  mode  of  warfare,  .  ...          55 

Their  massacres — attachment  to  the  horse,  ..." 

The  nursery  of  great  conquerors,  .  .  .58 

Character  of  the  Russian  war  of  1812 — 13 — Remarks,  .  .  " 

EGYPT. 

B.  C. 

2183  This  kingdom  wa*  founded,  .... 

Her  soil  and  character,  .... 

600  Subdued  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 

A.  D.  Again  !<y  Alexander  333  before  Christ,  «                 " 

3!    It  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,                 .  .                                 " 

625  Was  subdued  by  the  Saracens,                   .  .                 •                 " 

1535  (  .inquired  by  the  Turks,                 .                 .                 .  .                              M 

17^  Oven  an  by  the  French,                ,                  .                   .  .                  .                  •« 

18«1  Conquered  by  tbe  fiaglitbt                .                .                .  *' 

1803  Ceded  by  the  FCnglish  back  to  the  Turks,                 .  •• 

Character  of  the  KgyptianJ.  and  sfo-ernment,            •  •             .         58  to  61 

DENMARK. 

A.  D. 

70i  Orormo  founded  this  kingdom,  ,                .                •                61 

1'aae*  in*  aJe   England  from  time  to  time,  '* 

88"    **os9C3.<    i-n^land                           ...  .                                           " 

88'^   Expelled  by    Alfred.            .  . 

SV-1!       •.!  ,•  rcniUi   Fngland  (ributary,              .  .               .                                           •' 

.IOC.1   '     i,   w  thi-  trit.ute,                .  ...••'• 

141J  C  '<ni]U«r  Norway,             .                  .  •            *• 

History  of  Denmark  continued,  .               •                •• 


38S  CONTENTS. 

GREECE  CONTINUED. 

B.  C.  Page 

2000  Greece  first  settled  by  (on,  son  of  Japhet,  eldest  son  of  Noah,  63 

1500  Letters  introduced  from  Kgypt,  .... 

l-20'i  Character  of  the  Greeks  at  the  time  of  the  Argonauts,  .  .  64 

900  Their  character  at  the  tims  of  the  Trojan  war, 

700   Which  gave  rise  to  Homer,  and  afterwards  to  the  Olympic  games  .         " 

450   Peloponesian  war,  and  character  of  Greece,  continued, 
With  the  invasion  of  Darin*,  and  of  Xerxes, 

Character  and  government  of  Lycurgus  and  Solon,  .  •  65 

300  Decline  of  Greece   to  the  reign  of  Philip  and  Alexander;  when  she  fell  un- 
der the  rod  of  a  despot,  • 

150  And  became  a  Roman  province,  .... 

A.   D.  J30  Greece  became  tht»   seat  of  Roman    government,   under  the    empe- 
ror of  Constantine — Remarks, 

450  Greece,  under  the  Roman  capital,  until  the  conquest  of  the  Turks,  where 
it  DOW  remains,  ...... 

ROME  CONTINUED. 

B.C. 

700  The  city  of  Rome  founded  by  Romulus,  its  government  by  a  king  and  senate,    68 


PART  SECOND. 

FROM    THE    REVOLUTION    OF    THE    WESTERN    ROMAN     EMPRIE, 
410,    TO    THE    YEAR    1818,    OP    THE    CHRISTIAN   ERA. 

CHAP.  I. 

Revolution  of  the  ivestern  Roman  empire — character  of  the  Barbarians — • 
laws  of  division,  and  tenure  of  their  spoil—character  of  the  Roman 
Region- religion  of  the  barbarians — character  of  the  dark  ages — 
origin  of  the  feudal  system. 

410  Character  of  the  Romans — of  the  Barbarians,  .                .                ,74 

450  Their  ravages  in  the  Roman  empire,             .  .                 . 

R'-ligion  of  the   Romans  and  Barbarians, 

486  Genius  of  their  government  unde.i  Clovis— Feudal  system,             .             •        77 

CHAP.  II. 

Clovis — character  of  his  reign—  distracted  state  of  the  Franks — mayors 
of  the  palace — reign  of  Pepin — Charles  Marlel — Leoregild — ecclesi- 
astical power — Mahomet — Saracens — situation  of  Spain. 

A.  D. 

Pharamond — Clovis,  and  the  religion  »f  ih«  Franks  ;  his  victory  and  con- 
quest of  the    Visigoths,  .... 

511   r'CB»h  of  Clovis  -bis  successors  and  feuds,  .  " 

656  Character  of  Pepin    mayor  of  the  palace, 

73     Charles  Martel  Ms  successor  .... 

752   P- pin  bin  successor,  ...  " 

Vi:.i£oths  in  Spain — Distresses  in  Spain, 

Remarks,  .  ... 

CHAP.  III. 

General  affairs  of  Italy— rise  of  popery— Pepin  supports  the  pope—state 


CONTENTS.  389 

of  Britain— origin  of  the  Anglo-Saxons— Wittcnagemot,    or  elective 
government. 

'A-    D-  Pa~ 

Italy  under  the  Lombards,  ...... 

Ki>.e  of  the   Papal  Power,        •.-....» 

752  Pope  Zachary,  and  Pepin  king  of  the  Franks,         .  .  .         .          82 

Struggles  of  Italy — Pope  Stephen,  and  Pepin,  .  .  .  .  »t 

763   Death  of  Pepin — his  successor,  .  .  .  .  .  .83 

Britain,  under  the.  Romanb,  and  after  their  departure,      ...  «« 

50  Anglo  Saxons,  iheir  conquest  of  Britain,   their  Heptarchy,  .  .         85 

CHAP.  III.  CONTINUED. 

Government,  manners  and  customs  of  the  heptarchy,  down  to  Egbert,  and  to 
827       his  successor,  .  •  .  .  .  •  85 

833  Alfred  the  Great— character  and  government  of  Alfred, 
901  His  death,  ....  .  .          88 

77i  Rise  of  Charlemagne— Charles  supports  pope  Adrian  I. 

774  Pwts  an  end  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards,  ID  Italy,  and  is  crowned  emperor 

of  the  West.  .  .  .  ,  .  .89 

CHAP.  IV. 

France  and  the  church,  through  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  and  his  sue" 

cessors,  to  the  settlement  of  Hollo  the  Norman* 
A.  D. 

The  connection  between  the  papal  and  French  monarchies,          .  .         39 

800  Imperial  coronation  of  Charles,  .  .  .  .  .        90 

'M2  Respect  paid  to  Charles  by  the  powers  of  the  east,  . 

314  Character  of  Charles— big  death,  and  the  extent  of  his  empire — Lewis  his  son 
and  successor — his  government  and  feuds — is  deposed  by  pope  Gregory  IV. 
for  taking  up  arms  against  his  rebellious  sons,  and  his  son  Lothario  succeeds 
to  the  throne  .  ...  92 

334  Lewis  restored,  and  Lothar'O  made  king  of  Italy—  Lewis  dies — the  feuds  con- 
tinue, and  ih-  Saracens  iiuade.  Italy ;  the  Normans  ravage  France,  and  burn 
Pans;  and  amidst  all  these  distresses,  the  clergy  assume  the  disposal  of 
crowns,  .  ..." 

Rollo  the  Norman  chief,  begins  his  ravages  in  France,  .  .         93 

'Jll   Marries  the  daughter  of   Charles  the  simple,  and  settles  in  Nustra,  which  be- 
comes the  Province  of  Normandy,  .  .  94 
The  distractions  of  Gerniaoy,  M^ep  pace  with  the  feuds  of  France,  under  the 
912    successors  of  Charlemagne,  until  they  are  succeeded  by  tbe  emperor  Conrad  1.    " 

CHAP.  V. 

Germany  from  the  election  of  Conrad  I.  with  Italy  and  the  church,  d<ncti 

to  the  year  1004. 
A.  D. 

9l7  The  Hans  invade  Germany,  and  force  a  p^ace,  .  .         94 

920  Conrad  succeeded  by  Henry  I.  of  Saxonjr— Electors  of  the  Germanic  body- 
Henry,  by  hu  sword,  gi»es  peace  to  Germany,  .  .  .95 

936  Attempts  the  conquest  of  Italy,  and  dir-,,  .  .  95 

937  The  race  of  Charlemagne  becomes  extinct  in  Fiance,  .  «• 
Otho  I  son  of  Henry  I  -upports  with  dignity  the  imperial  throne  of  Germany, 

948    propagate*  Christianity   even  into  Denmark,  and  gives  laws  to  Italy,           .  •• 

962  Is  crowned  king  of  thi'  Romans,                                 .                   .                  .  «» 

Otho  chastises  the  perfidy  of  pope  John  XII.                    .                                 .  " 
Tbe  feuds  of  Italy,  compel  Othoiio  support  a  succession  of  popes — b«  contract* 
970        an  alliance  between  bis  son,  Otho  1 1.  aod  a  princess  of  the  Greek  empire,  at 

Constantinople.                .                                ....  97 

34 


390  CONTENTS. 

A-  D.  Pag« 

973  Otho  the  great  dies,  and  leaves  his  throne  to  his  son,  Otho  II.— He  like  his 
father  is  valiant  in  arms  ;  but  amidsl  the  feudsof  Italy,  harragsed  by  the 
Saracens,  .  .  .  .  91 

983  Dies  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son,  Otho  III. 
1000  Otho  III.  created  Bolislaus  king  of  Poland, 
1002  The  Saracens  enter  Italy,  besiege  Rome,  and  are  expelled  by  Otho,  who  dies 

of  poison,  and  is  succeeded  by  Henry  II.  •  " 

1004  Henry,  harrassed  by   feuds,  attempts  to  retire  ;  but  is  prevented  by  the  com- 
mands of  the  Abbot  of  St.  Val.  continues  toreig-n  with  successful  prosper- 
1024        ity  until  his  death,  and  is  succeeded  by  Conrad  II. 

CHAP.  VI. 

England  and  France,  from  the  Rise  of  Edward  1.  to  the  Norman  con- 
quest,  1U66. 

901  Edward  I   ascends  the  throne  of  his  father  Alfred,  and  maintains  the  Saxon 

liberties  through  a  succes-ful  reign,  .  .  .  .9! 

925  Dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Athelstan,  who  establishes  Sitheric,  the  Danish 
chief,  in  Northumberland,  with  his  sister  in  marriage,  which  produces  a 
war  with  Scotland.  .  .  ' 

941  Athelstan  encourages  commerce — dies  and  is  succeeded  by  his  brother  F.d- 
mond  :  who  is  assassinated,  and  succeeded  by  his  brothe^Eddred  ;  who  is 
a  friend  to  monastic  life,  through  his  reign,  , 

955  Dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Edwy,  the  son  of  Edmorid,  who  suffers  great  perse- 
cutions from  the  clergy,  is  divorced  from  his  queen,  dethroned,  and  his 
brother  Edgar  succeeds  him  at  thirteen  years  of  age,  .  .  9 

Edgar  favours  Monkery,  and  is  sainted, 

975  Dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son  Kdward,  v,-ho  was  murdered  in  three  years, 

978  And  succeeded  by  Ktlielred,  who  orders  a  general  massacre  ofall  the  Danes 
in  England  which  occasions  his  expulsion,  by  Swein,  king  of  Denmark,  and 
his  persecution  to  his  death,  ..... 

1016  He  is  succeeded  by  his  son.  Edmond  Ironside, 

1017  Who  die-.,  and  leaves  the  throne  to  Canute  the  Dane,  .  1C 
996  The  feuds  of  France,  leaves  open   the  way  for  Hugh,  duke  of  France,  to 

eei2e  on  the  crown,  and  conf«r   it   to  his   son   Robert,  who  fell  under  the 
same  ecclesiastical  despotism,  of  Edwy  of   Kngland, 

1031   Dies,  and  leaves  his  crown  to   his  son,  Henry  I    who  flies  to  Normandy  for 
succor,  and  by  his  sword,  enters  France,  and  recovers  his  crown, 
Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy,  dies  on  a  pilgrimage   to   Jerusalem,  leaves  his 
1046       throne  to  hi»  natural   son  William,  then  a  minor,  who  is  crowned  in  the 

midst  of  strife.  .  •  J< 

Canute  sends  ICdwin  and  Edward,  sons  of  Edmond  Iionside,  into  Sweden, 

to  be   dispatched — they   are  preserved   in  Hungary, 
Canute  at  the  same  time  gives  tranquility  to   England,  by  marrying  Emma, 

their  mother,  and  queen  of  Ethelred, 

Canute  subdues  Swsden,  and  Norway,    humbles  Malcolm  king  of  Scotland, 

1035       dies   and  leaves  his  throne  to  his  son   Harold  harefoot,  who  if)  succeeded 

by  Edward,  son  of  Ethelred,  who  dies  and  leaves  hi*  tbrone  to  Harold  II. 

who  is  in»aded  by  his  brother  Tosti,  and  next  by  William,  duke  of  Nor- 

1066       mandy,  who  usurps  the  tbrone,  and  establishes  the  feudal  system,  .         I1 

CHAP.  VII. 

Spain  and  the  church,  with  Germany  and  Italy,  through  the.  reign 
Henry  IV.  to  the  year  1099. 

768  Spain,  the  Saracens,  and  Greek  empire  from  7fi3,  .  1 

Portugal  under  the  Arabs — one  general  scene  of  distress, 
Constantinople,  and  the  arts  and   sciences,  and  the  Greek  ehurch,  all  in  the 

midst  of  corruption — Remarks, 
Feudi  of  Italy  down  to  1073 


CONTENTS.  391 

A.  D.  Page 

Henry  IV.  emperor  of  Germany,  is  persecuted  by  pope  Gregory  VII.    and 

excommunicated  .  .  .  107 

Greg«ry  causes  Rodolph,  duke  of  Suabia,  to  be    elected    emperor,     •      .  •• 

Henry,  by  a  council,  depeses  Gregory,  and  by  his  sword,  humbles  Rodolph, 

§  and  all  Germany  and  Italy  are  involved  in  the  quarrel,  lOg 

CHAP.  VIII. 

The  church— first  crusade — chivalry,  and  the  monastic  rage. 
A.  D. 

1095  Remarks — First  Crusade,  general  disasters,  .  .  .  109 
Amount  of  the  Christian  forces  in  4sia,            .                 .                                         1 10 
Conquest  of  Jeiusalem,                               ...                   .  " 
Godfrey  King  of  France,  made  king  of  Jerusalem,                 •                    .  " 
Guelphs  and  Ghibelinea,  become  conspicuous  in  the  subsequent  feuds  of  Eu- 
rope—Remarks,                .                 .                 .                 .                                        Ill 

Chivalry — its  character,  .  .  .  •  " 

.  '  Monastic  life — its  character — Remarks,  ,  .  .  .          112 

CHAP  IX. 

England  through  the  reign  of  William  I.  William  II.  Henry  I. — Germany 

and  France  to  the  second  cn&ade. 
A.  D. 

William  I.  visits  Normandy,  returns  to  quell  a  rebellion — subdues  the  British  11 

spirit,  and  establishes  the  French  language,  quells  a  rebellion  in  Normandy, 
1087     ravages  France,  and  dies,  leaving  the  crown  of  England  to   his   son,  Wil- 
liam II.  .  .  113 

1096  William  II.    pursues  the  policy   of  his  father,  purchases  Normandy  of  his 
brother  Robert ;  and  sets  the  pope,  Urban  II.  at  defiance,  .  .  •» 

1100  Is  killed  on  a  hunting  match  in  his  new  park,  «• 

Henry  I.  bis  brother  succeeds  to  the  throne,  ...  «» 

Seizes  his  brother  Robert  in  Normandy,  and  imprisons  him  in  England  28 

years,  where  he  dies,  .  .  .  114 

1135  Causes  bis  English  subjects  to  acknowledge  Henry  Plantagenet,  his  grandson, 

then  a  minorrbis  heir,  and  dies,  .  " 

Despotism,  and  the  reign  of  terror,  lays  the   foundation   for  the  future  strug- 
gles of  privilege  and  prerogative,  .  .  " 
New  struggles  arise  in  Germany  and  Italy  under  Lothario,  and   his   successor, 

Conrad  III  — Anecdote  of  the  castle  of  Weinburg — New  crusades,          .  116 

1152  Conrad  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Frederic  Barbarossa,  •  " 

1300  persons  burnt  in  the  church  of  Vitri,  by  order  of  Lewis  VII.  king  of 
France,  who  favors  St.  Bernard  in  the  second  crusade,  to  atone  for  this 
crime,  ...  ,  116 

Amount  of  the  army  of  the  crusade,  and  events,  ,  .  " 

CHAP.  X. 

England  during  the  reign  of  Stephen — Henry  II. — the  church  with  ° 

continuation  of  the  second  crusade — Germany  and  the  third  crusade. 
A.  D 

1135  Stephen,  count  of  Boulogne  seizes  the  throne— weakens  the  crowo  by  indul- 
ging the  barons  in  building  ca«lle*— David,  king  of  Scoti.  and  Matilda  wage 
war  in  support  of  Henry  II,   the  rightful  heir,  which  is  settled  by   compro- 
mise—These  civil  wars  produce  a  distressing  famine  in  England,  .         117 
Henr/ II    upon  the  death  of  Stephpn,   succeeds    to   the  throne,  Mid   humbles 

Lewis  VII    kino;  of  France,  by  tb«  first  independent  army,  .  " 

1161    \ppointsThomasA    Beoket,  primate   of  England,  to  correct  the  abuses  of 

the  church — Becket's  character,  ....  118 

116^  Opm  war  bftwern  Henry  and  Becket, 

Constitution  of  Clarendon,  .  •  llg 

Flight  of  Becket,  his  return,  triumph,  and   death,  .  120 

Superstitions  of  Becket's  tomb. 


392  CONTENDS. 


Normandy  to   settle   bis  peace   with 


1189 


I'rnlipl!    succeds  to  the   throne, 

Henry  dies  in  Normandy — Improvements  of  Henry,  .  .  " 

Alexander  III    brings  Frederic  II    emperor  of  Germany,  to  kiss  his  feet,  &c.  122 

Victor  III     and   Alexander  III      rival    nrmps.  •« 


takes  their  king,  ,  . 

1183   Lewis  VII    king  of  France,  makes  a  pilgrimage  to  Becket's  tomb,  dies,    and 

Philip  I!    succeds  to  the  throne, 
HI-:J"V  'lies  in  JVormandy — Improvements  of 
Aiexand.-r  III    brings  Frederic  II    emperorc 
Victor  III    and  Alexander  III     rival  popes, 

1159   Milan  destroyed  amidst  these  rival  feuds,  .  '• 

Oiisi.i  of  the  house  of  Brunswick,  .  ,  .  •• 

1181  Saladin,  caliph  of  Egypt,  recovers  Palestine,  which  occasions  another  cru- 
sade under  Frederic  Barbarossa,  who  dies  in  Asia  Minor,  and  is  succeeded 
by  his  son  Henry  VI.  .  ,  .  123 

J 191  Philip  I.  of  France,  and  Richard  I   of  England,  engage  in  this  new  crusade, 

and  tafte  their  route  to  I'alestine  by  water.  .  .  .  » 

CHAP.  XI. 

rhe  third  crusade  continued — Richard  Iring  of  England,  a  captive  in  Ger- 
many— John  successor  to  Richard — Magna  Charta. 

A.  D- 

They  besiege  and  take  Ptolemais,  .  .  .  .123 

Characters  of  Richard  and  Philip,  .... 

1 192  Rir.har-.i   ^ains   the  famous  battle  of  Ascalon,  and  the  conquest  of  that  city — 

The  confederates,  in  sight  of  Jerusalem,  abandon  the    enterprize,  ami  re- 
turn home,  .  ...  124 

1193  Rirhai  d  is  seized  in  Austria,  and  sold  to  the  emperor  of  Germany,  imprison- 

ed, and  ransomed  bv    his  subjects  for  ?00  0001.  sterling,  .  " 

;  199  Is  wounded  at  the  seige  of  the  castle  of  Vidomer  and  dies,  John,   bia  brother, 

succeeds  to  the  throne,  .....  126 

1505  Philip  of  France  seizes  on  all  the  English  possessions  in  IVcrmandy,         .          " 
Joha  falls  under  a  papal  interdict,  and  resigns  his  crown    to  the  pop'e,  togeth- 
er with  an  annual  tribute  of  1000  marks,— John  and   Otho    IV.  form   the 
first  German  coalition  against  France,  .  .  " 

:215  John  grants  to  the  barons,  Magna  Charta,  ,  .126 

Henry  VI  emperor  of  Germany,  institutes  three  crusades  with  the  price  of 
Richard's  ransom,  and  dies  in  the  midst  of  his  wars,  in  Italy,  by  poison 
from  his  queen,  ....  «'' 

CHAP.  XII. 

Crusade  against  Constantinople — Germany — France,  and  a  new  crusade 
— England  and  France — borough  elections  in  England. 

A.  D, 

1204  Baldwin,  earl  of  Flanders,  heads  a  new  crusade,  .  .  128 

Ta*Kes  Constantinople,  is  proclaimed  emperor  of  the   Gree.ks,  •  •• 

1206  Becomes  unfortunate,  is  defeated  and  slain.  " 

1215  The  feuds  of  Germany  closed,  at  the  coronation  of  emperor  Frederic  II-  " 

AH  Europe  engages  in  the  new   crusade,   under  Honorious    III. — Cardinal 
Albano  made  general  in  chief,  " 

1221   Becomes  unfortunate,  and  the    confederates  abandon  the  wqr    by  a  truce,         •' 
New  feuds  in  Germany  compel  Frederic   II.  Vo  engage  in   another   crusade 
under  Gregory  IX. — Frederic  is  more  successful  in  the  east  than  any  of  the 
preceding  champions.  .  " 

i229  Concludes  a  truce,  and  returns  home,  and  is  involved  in  new  feuds  with  the 
pope,  .... 

1256  The  civil  wars  rage  until  his  death,  ....  199 

1273  An  interregnum  succeeds,  until  the  election  of  Kodolph,  count  of  Hapsburg  ; 

the  Hanseatic  league  is  formed  during  this  interregnum,  .  «« 

I2'6   Philip  of  France  engages  in  the  support  of  the  ci^il  wars  in  England  against 

John,  and  dies,  ...  .  .  " 

1217  Henry  III    son  of  John,  gives  union  •'nd  peace  to  England,  .  " 

1253  Henry  attempts  to  recover  ihe  English  possessions  in  France,  , 


CONTENTS.  S9S 

A.  D.  Page 

1257  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  attempts  to  quiet  the  feuds  of  Germany,  spend* 
his  vast  estate,  fails,  and  returns  poor  to  England — The  feuds  in  England 
open  the  way  for  the  earl  of  Leicester  to  establish  a  new  parliament,  with 
borough  elections,  .  .  .  131 

Remarks  on  the  parliament, 

CHAP.  XIII. 

England — France,  and  a  neiv  crusade  under  Lewis   VIII — Spain  from 
1007  to  1097,  thence  to  1303 — some  symptoms  of  order. 

J265  Henry  recovers  his  throne,  and  Leicester  is  ilain,  .  .                  131 

1270  Prince  Kdward  engages  in  the  holy  war  with  success,  •  •             " 

1271  Returns  and  succeeds  his  father  upon  his  death,  .  .                    132 
Philip  of  France  leaves  his  throne  to  Lewis  VII.  .  .                 133 

1226  Who  in  his  turn  leaves  it  to  Lewis  IX.  a  minor,  ..." 

1235  Lewis  comes  to  the  throne,  and  engages  in   the   holy  wars,  with   his  queen, 

three  brothers,  and  all  the  knights  of  France,  ...  .  134 

1248  Lands  in  ttpypt,  and  takes  the  city  of  Damietta,  .  •         " 

1249  Is  defeated  and  taken  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Massouro,  is  ransomed  by  treaty, 

and  1000  pieces  of  gold,  with  all  the  captives,  and  retires  to    Palestine   for 

four  years,  .....  . 

1258  Returns  to  France  to  settle  the  mobs  of  the  kingdom, 

Is  created  sole  umpire  in  the  fends  of  England,  .  •  •         " 

1264   Enters  upon  a  crusade  against  the  infidels  of  Africa,  loses  his  eldest  son  with 
1271       the  plague,  dies  himself,  and  his  second  son  leads  back  his  army  to  France,     " 

Character  of  Lewis,  .  " 

1073  Spain,  and  the  r«igVof  Knight-errantry,  from    1073   to    the   sequestration  of 
1147       Portugal,  under  Don  Henriquez,  .  .  .  " 

Spain  continued,  her  conflicts  with  the  Moors,  .  .  •  136 

1212  Battle  of  the   Black  mountains,  .  .  .  136 

1236  Rise  of  Ferdinand  III    or  St   Ferdinand— his  conquests  and  death, 

1252  Alphonso   the   wise  succeeds — his   reign    and  death,  .  .  " 

1308  Saucho  his  son  succeeds — his  tranquil  reign  and  death,  .  .  " 

Ferdinand  IV    his  son  succeeds — his  turbulent  reign  and  extraordinary  death,  136 

Remarks  upon  chivalry  and  the  crusades. 

CHAP.  XIV. 

England,  under  Edward  I. — affairs  of  Scotland — Edward  II. 

1274   h:dward  I    succeeds  his  father,  .  .  •  137 

Subdues  Wales,  and  destroys   their  bards,  .  • 

1291   Subdues  Scotland  by  stratagem,  .  139 

1295  Borough  elections  established  in  the  house  of  commons,  in  England, 
Rercarks  on  £ov«ramont,  •  •  • 

1296  Conquest  of  Scotland,  by  Edward  I.  .  •  •  " 
He  compels  the  «ler°;y  to  furnish  supplies. 

Is  obliged  to  abandon  his  enactions,  and  add  one  more  article    to   the    great 

charter  to  rtstore  tranquility,  *' 

Edward's  ambitious  plans  against  France,  opens   the   way  for  a  rebellion  in 
Scotland — the  Scots  eipel  the  English  in  their  turn  -  are  again  subdued  by 
Kdward,  and  William  Wallace,  their  chief,  taken  and  executed, 
)305  Rebellion  again  renewed,  under  Robert  Biuce,  and   the  English  agai»  ex. 

pell.d.  140 

1307   *  d ward  enters  Scotland  in  triumph — dies,  and  leaves  hu  throne  to  his  son, 

Kdward  II  ...  141 

Who  abandon*  the  enterprise  of  hi*  father, 

1303  And    the  Scots  restore  their  powr,  und«r  Robert  Brace,  who  invades  Eng- 

Innd  •   which  rouses  Edward  II.  to  the  conqnest  of  Scotland,         .         .  " 

1314  Thr  English  are  d«-f«Ht«d,  and  fl.e  ;  and  the  Scots  uuder  Robert  Bruce  again 
*rm-r  England.  *nd  invade  Ireland. 

1323  Force  »  peace,  and  secnr*  their  !'b«r!ips. 

1327  Civil  wars  of  England,  here  follow  «    'he  death  of  Edward, 
34* 


394  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  XV. 

Germany  and  Switzerland— Italy— France— KnigJds  Templars. 

A.   E>  Pae- 

1292  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  and  the  rise  of  the   bouse  of  Austria, 
1179  Death  of  Rodolph,  .  ...          ., 

1292  The  succession  of  Adolpbus  of  Nassau,  and  Albert  duke  of  Austria,  » 

1298  Triumph  of  Albert,  at  the  battle  of  Rosendel,  and  his  coronation,  -  « 

J308  Revolution  and  liberties  of  Switzerland,  ,, 

Death  of  Albert,  and  succession  of  Henry  VII.  .  140 

Affairs  of  Italy,  .  .  ,  .  .  .  ,. 

1313  Death  of  Henry  VII  .  . 

Knights  of  the  Teutonic  order,  purchase  Dantzic,  <$-c.  .  .  ,, 

France,  during  these  struggles,  had  been  involved  in  war,  under  Philip   III. 

on  account  of  the  crown  of  Sicily,  .  .  144 

J282  Massacre  of  the  Sicilian  Vespeis,  .  .  t, 

)2<-5  Philip  III  attempts  the  re.covery  of  Sicily — fails  and  dies.  His  son  Philip 
IV.  succeeds  to  the  throne  of  France — institutes  parliaments  upon  the  plan 
of  Edward  I.  of  England,  .  .  .  „ 

!303  Quarrels  with  the  pope    and   c  ergy  —  burns  the    pope's  bull — summons   his 

first  parliament,  who  support  the  kin?.  u 

Boniface  die*  of   chagrin — Benedict  IX    succeeds — is  poisoned  for  bis   good 

deedg.  and  leaves  his  chair  to  Clement  V.  a  Fienchman,  .  145 

S310  Philip,  the  pope  and  states  of   Europe,    persecute  and   destroy   the   Knights 
J312      Templars, 

H14  Philip  dies,  and  is  succeeded  b  »•  his  son,  Lewis  X  .  .  « 

;316  Who  dies  after  a  short,  but  cruel  and  avaricious  rei^n,  •  ,  « 

CHAP.  XVI. 

France  and  the  Salic  law — England  and  Scotland — England  and  France- 
battle  of  Cressy. 
\.  D 

1328  The  origin  of  the  Salic  law  examined — succession  of  Philip  de  Valois,  145 

1330   Edward  III    punishes  the  mal-administration  of  earl  Mortimer  and  the  queen 

mother,  and  restore.-  tranquility,  .  .  147 

.13J   Raises  Edward  Baliol  from  a  French  prison,  to  the  throne  of  Scotland,  •• 

133,?   He  is  expelled,  and  flies  into  England,  .  .', 

1334    i-.dward,  by  the  sword,  again  restores  Baliol  to  his  throne,  and   receives  the 

submission  of  Scotland,  .....  u 

1336  The  >cots  a :rain  expel  BalioS,  and  France  supports  the   insurrection,  «« 

1338  Edward  nuts  in  hi',  clain.s  to  i.he  crown  of  France,  opens   hisjnegoeiations    in 

the  Low  Countries,  or  Plunders,  and  invades  France,  .  .  143 

1339  Edward  is  successful  against  the  French    at  cea.  .  .  .. 

1340  He  again  invades  France,  with  his  allies  in  Flanders,  and  challenges  Philip, 

which  produces  a  truce,  .  .  149 

3343  The  truce  displays  the  talents  of  the  countess  of  Mountfort  in  the    defence  of 

the  province  of  Brittany i  .  .  » 

1946  Edward  by  tht%  assistance  of  his  parliament,  is  enabled  again  to  enter  France 

— passage  of  the  Sornme,  artd  battle  of  Cressy — use  of  cannon,  .         150 

CHAP.  XVII. 

England  and  Scotland — general  plague — invasion  of  France  by   Edward 

///. — battle  ofPoictiers — civil  wars  of  France — peace  and  conditions. 
A.  D. 

1346  Bruce,  king-  o£ Scotland,  at  the  instigation  of  Philip,  king  of  France,  enters 

England  victorious,                                                     •                   •  151 

Edward  invade^  France,  to  support    his  claim  to  ihe    crown,   and   his  queen 
Hhilipp*  ?a  ns  a  battle  over  the  Scots— takes  David  their  kiug  and  all    his 

court  pn* •.:>"•" s.                                                                                        .  .            '' 

1347  Philit'pa  joins  Edward  in  France.  an<5  they  take   Calais,                     .  " 
'348    Kdwar'd  .-'ttlfis  a  peac-%  md  returns    to   Enirlard,                   .                  .  " 
iS50  Chaiactir 'f  the  English  Couit  and  order  of  the   srnrter,                  .  " 

General  plague  throughout  the  world;  Philip  VI.    dies;  IS? 


CONTENTS.  395 

A,  D.  Pa?e 

Civil  war  in  France  under  Charies  the  bad,  15:J 

Edward    renews   th«    war  in  this  distre-K,  and  the    Prince  of    Wales    fains 
the  battle  of  Poictiers,  takes  John,  king  of  France,  prisoner,  and   conveys 
1356       him  under  a  truce,  with  respectful  dignity,  into   Kns;Iarid,  .  •• 

Charles  attempts  to  rule  amidst  the  distractions  of  the  civil  wars  and  massa- 
cres under  Marcel,  provost  of  Paris—the  poor  against  the  rich  611  France 
with  wretchedness,  until  the  death  of  Marcel  enables  the   dauphin    to  re- 
store order  again,  ...  153 
1359  Edward  the  black  prince  again  enters  France,  and  takes  advantage  of  Ihesc 

distresses,  to  mak".  a  favourable  peace,  restores  John  to  his  throne,         .         " 
1364  Who  again  returns  to  England  to  revise  the  treaty,  and  die«,  .  •' 

CHAP.  XVIII. 

Particular  remarks — affairs  of  France  and  Spain — Black  Prince  renews 

the  ivar  with  France — battle  of  champions — Germany  and  Italy. 
A.  D. 

Remarks  on  the  last  chapter,  .  .  .  15-1 

Accession  of  Charles  V— his  difficulties, 

Charles  lends  Im  aid  to  quiet  the  civil  wars  of  Spain,  •  155 

Du  Guesclin  and  pope  Innocent  VI    contend,  and  Innocent  yields   to   his  -de- 
mands, .....  .  " 

Edward  enters  Spain  with  100,000  men,  gains  the  battle  of  Najara,  on  the 
Ebro,  and  restores  Peter  I  to  his  throne,  .  .  " 

1376  Edward's  affairs  decline  in  France,  and   with  his   death   the    English   lose 

nearly  all  tbetr  possessions  in  France,  .  .  .  156 

1377  Edward  III.  dies  in  England, 

The  civil  wars  continue  to  rage  in  Germany,  thirty  competitors  appear  to  de- 
cide the  controversy  between  Frederick,  duke  of  Bavaria,  and  Lewis  duke 
of  Austria  ;  every  man  falls  into  the  conflict,  the  armies  engage,  and  Lew- 
is is  triumphant,  .  " 

Switzerland  secures  her  liberty  at  the  same,  time,  and  the  council  of  Frank- 
fort, check  the  insolence  of  the  popes.  The  struggles  continue  until  the  diet 
ofNuremburg,  by  their  golden  bull,  quiet  the  feuds  of  the  imperial  elections  157 

CHAP.  XIX. 

Affairs  of  England  under  Richard  II.  and  Henry  IV. — Scotland— Ger- 
many and  the  states  of  Italy—council  of  Constance. 
A.  D. 

Remarks — accession  of  Richard  II. — *tate  of  his  treasury,  .  158 

The  poll  tax  causes  an  insurrection  under  Wat  Tyler,  159 

Richard  lays  the  storm,  upon  the  death  of  Tyler,  by  abolishing  feudal  vas- 
salage in   F.ngland,  " 
1399  Richard  died,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  as  Henry  IV.  by  a 

bloody  usurpation,  ..,..'  •• 

MOO  He  persecutes  Wickliff  and  his  followers,  . 

1403  This  kindles  a  civil  war,  which  is  quelled  with  severity.  .  160 

1393  The  papal  contests  between  Urban  VI    and  Mement  III.  verr  severe  in  Italy 

and  involve  the  states  of  Germany,  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  .  " 

1383  Margaret,  queen  of  Denmark,  seizes  on  Sweden,  .  .  •" 

Winceslaus.  emperor  of  Germany   dies — Fiederick,  duke  of  Brunswick,  suc- 
1399     ceeds — is  murdered,  and  Uober'.  cr>um   palatin-,  of    the  Rhine  succeed',         " 
John  Huss,  a  disciple  of  Wicklitf,  appears  in  Bohemia,  and  tbtowsth'-  church 
into  great  confusion,  and  occasion^  she  council  of  f'atalonia,   Aqnila,    Pisa, 
Frankfort  and  Constance,  .  .  161 

1411  Sigigijfrund  succeeds  to  the  throne  upon  the  death  of  Robert, 


396  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  XX. 

Affairs  of  Germany— of  England— of  France. 

Remarks — the  council  of  Constance,  .  .  . 

Sigismund  the  emperor  repairs  to  Spain,  to  settle  the  papal  feuds  with  Bene- 
dict XIII.  «...  .  .  «• 
Martin  V    elected   Pope,                  .                  .                 .  u 
1436  Insurrections  and  murders  in  Bohemia,                .                              .             .              « 
J438  Si^ismund  leaves  the  imperial  throne  to  Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  together  with 

the  crown  of  Bohemia,  .  .  .  .  t  » 

Fnince  distracted  under  Charles  VI.  .  .  .  .  «« 

H13  Henry  IV.  of  England  dies  in   the  midst  of  feuds,   and  leaves  his   throne   to 

Henry  V.  who  suppresses  the  Lollards,  or  followers  of  Wickliff,  .  " 

1415  Henry  iriv-ades  Fiance,  and  gai«s  the    battle    of  Agincourt,   returns  to  Eng- 
land, and  leaves  France  torn  with  feuds,  .  .  J63 
1420  Henry  returns  to  France,  seizes  the  government,  and   marries    the  princess 

Cathayne,  .  ....<« 

Henry  dies,  and  leaves  the  throne  of  France  in  the  hands  of  his  brother  duke 

of  Bedford,  as  regent  for  his  infant  son,  Henry  VI Charles  VI.  dies,  and 

his  son.  Charles  VII.  is  crowned  at  Poictiers,  .  .  « 

Catharine  marries  sir  Owen  Tudor,  and  bears  the  dukes  of  Richmond  and 

Pembroke,  .  .  164 

J429  The  duke  of  Bedford  presses  the  affairs  of  Charles  VII    and  lays  seige  to  the 

city  of  Orleans,  •.....'• 

Affair  of  the  maid  of  ®rieans,  .  .  .  165 

1431  Her  successes,  misfortunes,  capture  and  death,  .  .  .  166 

1435  Death  of  the  duke  of  Bedford,  ..." 

1453  Loss  of  all  the  English  possessions  in  France,  except  Calais,  .  «« 

1439  Frfederick  III.  succeeds  to  the  throne  of  Germany,  after   the    short  rei^n   of 
Albert,  ...  ....  ° 

1441  Visits    the  council  of  Basil  ....  .  •« 

1452  Visits  Italy— is  crowned  at  Rome,  and  married,  .  .  .  167 
The  Turks  take  Constantinople — General  remarks,               .                 ;  •• 

CHAP.  XXI. 

Recapitulation— civil  ivars  in  England — of  France — war  in  Flanders. 
A.  D. 

Remarks  .  ...          168 

1450   Ric-bard,  duke  of  York,  and  Henry  VI.  contend  for  the  crown  of  England,        •» 
Fall  of  the  dukes  of  Glouce  "er  and  Suffolk,  .  .  •« 

1458  Henry  VI.  taken  by  Richard,  in  a  fatal  battle,  and   a   general   accommoda- 

"  lion" follows,  .  .  .  •« 

1459  Civil  war  renewed — Richard  fines  to  Ireland— returns  to  England,  and   falls 

in  the  battle  of  AVakefield,  169 

Kdward  IV  his  son,  appears  with  a  strong  force  to  support  the  claims  in  right 
of  his  father,  .  .  .  170 

1464  Is  crowned  at  London,  ....  •« 
The  action  of  Towtown,  between  Henry  VI.    and   Margaret   his  queen,  and 

Edward  IV  commences  the  exterminating  scene  of  no  quarter,  and  drives 
Henry  and  Margaret  into  Scotland.  Margarst  collects  an  army  in  Scot- 
land adrances  into  England,  fights  the  battle  of  Hexham,  is  beaten,  and 
escapes  to  France,  .  ....•• 

1465  Henry  is  taken  and  confined  in  thu  tower,  ....  •» 

1470  Civil  wai  continnes,  and  Henry  VI    recovers  his  throne.     Edward  again  re- 

covers bis  crown  and  capital,  after  another  battle  of  extermination  and  no 
quarter,  ,  .  ,  .  .  .  .171 

1471  H«nry  VI    dies,  ...... 

Edward  invades  France  successfully,  and  quiets  the  feuds  of  England,  by  the 

death  of  the  duke  of  Clarence,  .  .  «• 

1483  Dies,  and  leaves  hi-;  throne  to  Edward  V.  at  thirteen  years  of  age,  •• 
Richard  duke  of  Gloucester  is  chosen  regent,  and   usurps  the  throne,  by  his 

bloody  power,  as  Richard  III  .  .  «• 

1484  Henry  VII   defeats  Richard  in  the   battle    of  Bosworth,   and  recovers  the 

crown  to  the  true  line,  ur.der  the  new  dynasty  of  the  house    of  Tudor,  " 

1453  Charles  VII.  king  of  France,  at  this  time  establishes  a  regular  conscription 

ID  France,  .  .  i'K 


CONTENTS.  397 

A.  D.  Pa  e 

1461  Lewis  XI.  causes  the  death  of  his  father,  usurps  the  throne,  and  reigns  in  the 

midtit  of  feuds,  civil  wars  and  cruelty.  .  .  .  172 

1485  Dies  a  horrid  death— his  son  Chailea  Vlll.  succeeds,  .  .  •« 

CHAP.  XXIK 

4  general  view  of  Europe— league  of  Chambray — commencement  of  the 

reformation 
&..T). 

14H1   Charles  VIII.  unites  the  duchy  of  Brittany  to  bis  crown  by  marriage,  173 

1464  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  unite  the  crown  of  Castile  and  Arragon,  in   Spain   by 

a  like  marriage,  .  .  .  .  .  .  » 

1485  Henry  VI    quiets  the  civil  wars  in  England,  by  a  marriage  with  the  princess 

Elizabeth,  .  ... 

Maximilian  quiets  the  feuds  of  Germany,  by  the  court  of  the  imperial  cham- 
ber, «• 

1495  Charles  VIII.  lays  the  foundation  of  those  coalitions   which  have  preserved 

the  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  .  .  .  174 

1498  He  dies— Lewis  XII.  succeeds  to  the  throne,  and  recovers  the  province  of 

Brittany  from  Henry  VII.  .  .  .  «• 

1608  The  /eague  of  Chambray  formed,  by  pope  Julius  II.  to  humble  the  state  of  Ve- 
nice. .......  175 

Character  of  that  state,  .  >« 

Julius  arms  the  confederacy  against  Lewis  XII  with  the  aid  of  Henry  VIII. 
ofKnjIand,  .  .  .  . 

1513  Lewis  is  expelled  from  Italy,  and  Henry  VIII.  in  coalition  with  Maxamilian, 
invade  France  on  the  side  of  Flanders,  which  forms  the  first  coalition  of 
England  and  Germany  in  Flanders,  .  .  .  <• 

Lewis  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Francis  I.  ..." 

J516  Ferdinand  king  of  Spain,  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Charles  V.  .  ]76 

3517  Martin  Luther  fills  up  the  bright  constellation  of  Europe,  and  opens  the  way 
for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  < 

CHAP.  XXIII. 

General  state  of  society,  commerce^  navigation  and  the  arts  in  Europe — 
foreign  adventures  and  discoveries — reformation  continued. 

\.B. 

1139  Alphonfo   Henrique,   sequesters  the  Kingdom  of  Portugal,  .  177 

14&8  His  successors  become  nmigaton  and  adventurers  until  Emmanuel  I.  sends 
a  fleet  under  Vasce  de  Gama,  and  discovers  Him!os>tan — the  voyage  suc- 
cessful. .....  .  .t 

1500  Emmanuel  sends  a  second  Heel  to  India,  they  di-L'ovcr  Brazil  in  South  Amer- 
ica, and  repair  to  India,  .  .  " 

1513  This*voyaje  securer  to  the  Portuguese  the  rorr.rnerce  cf  India,  178 

1520  All  the  maritime  states  cf  F.urop",  engage  in  this  commerce,  Martin  Luther 
continue*  bis  successful  label  s,  in  publishing  the  gospel,  in  defiance  of  the 
diet  of  \Vorm.=^  ...  .  .  " 

Charles  V  a^-sernbles  tht-  diet  of  Spires,  to  suppress  the  doctrines  of  Luther, 
this  occasion*  a  general  protr.st  p<r:unnt  their  decrees,  ji-.-es  to  ihe  refor- 
mers the  name  of  prot.estams  and  lends  IQ  tho  confession  of  Augsburg,  by 
Meloncihon,  which  served  as  a  rallying  (mint  for  the  reformers,  179 

1524  The  strife  for  supremacy,  between  Krancis  I  and  Char]-;  V".  upon  the  thea- 
tre of  Italy,  terminates  in  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Francis,  at  the  seige  of 
Pavin, 

Henry  VIII  obtain*  the  till*  of  defender  of  the  t'.iitf-,  from  the  pope  ;  but  by 
an  open  quarrri,  severs  the  kingdom  of  England  !'roii  tltt-  holy  see,  estab- 
lishes the  epi-coral  church,  ami  dissolves  all  mor,a«t''c  institution*  io  Eng- 
land, .  . 
.  ..1  Henry  becomes  very  fickle  and  cruel,  in  his  morringe  relations  ;  discloses  the 
principles  of  his  religious  faith,  and  dies  a  ca' !. 


398  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  XXIV. 


Affairs  of  Germany — of  England — F/a/.ce — Massacre  of  St.   SarthoU- 

ueiv. 

A.  D.  Page 

The  union  of  the  protestant?  under  the  confesm'on  of  Au^sbiirs^.  m<l    Ipa^ii'1  of 
Su.alkalde,  supports  their  cause   ag;i.n«t   the  d-iect  aitac's    of  th 
power,  and  the  insiduous  attacks  of  the  interim:,  of  Charles  V.  of  Spain,  186 

1546  Luther  die-,  m  the  midst  of  his  aiicce-sfiil  1 .  tjors  •« 
155?   Prince  Maurice  supports  the  profeatant  ta'i'e  it,  Gcrniany,                    .  •• 

1547  Dm  ing  the  minority  of  Edwaid  VI.  >on  and  surcessor  of  'lenry  VIII.  a   war 

commences  between  Knjrland  and  Scotland,  which  confirms  the  reformation 

in  England  as  it  now  Hands  .  .  181 

1553  Edward  VI    d.es  and  lady  Jane  Oi  ay  succeeds,  expressly  ^-pinst  thu  w'll  of 

Henry  VIII    and  spils  the  best  blood  of  the  nation,  and  brings   Marv  to  the 
throne  .  .  ° .  "     .  « 

1554  She  reigns  in  bloody  persecution  against  the  Protestants  five   years,  and   by 

her  death  makes  w;iy  for  the  illustrious  reigrn  of  Elixab'th,"  .  " 

Upon  the  accession  of  Mary,  Charles  V    of  Spain  leaves  his  tii  one  !o  his  son 
Philip  II.  and  retires  to  private  life,  and  Philip  marries  queen   M-IV  " 

1559  The  reformation  supported  universally  by  Elizabeth,  and  confirmed  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.  .  .  .  182 

1565  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  marries  Francis 'I  of  France,  and  upon  hi*  drath  re  • 
turns  to  Scotland,  where  she,  attempts  to  suppress  the  reformation;  bnt 
fails,  marries  lord  Darnley,  by  w-.orn  she  has  om  son,  J  ara^s  VI.  •  85 

1568  Upon  the  death  of  her  husba'hd," compelled  to   flee  into  Englani  to  her  sister 

Elizabeth  for  succour,  where  she  languishes  in  prison,  .  .  " 

1572  Charles  IX,  of  France,  v«  ho  succeeded  FrancisII.  causes  the  massacre  of  St. 

Bartholomew,  .  .  .  <• 

J574  Charles  IX,  dies  of  a  horrid  disease,  .  .  ,  " 

1587  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  tried,  condemned  and  executed,          .  '• 

CHAP.  XXV. 

Affairs  of  the  reformation  generally— Spanish  Armada— Remarks. 
A.  r>. 

1557  The  Emperor  Ferdinand  succeeds  Charles  V.  .  .  184 

1561  And  calls  the  council  of  Treqt,  to  heal  the  feuds  of  the  chuch,  .  •• 

1564  Maxarnilian  II.  succeeds  up«n  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  .  .  «• 

1588  Philip  11.  invades  England  by  his  invincible  Armada,   which  is  wholly   lost 

and  destroyed,  .....  «• 

1589  Henry  III  of  France,  supports  the  Protestants — is  assassinated  by  a  Domican 

Friar,  and  is  succeeded  by  Henry  IV.  who  supports  Uie  Protestants  185 

1598  And  publishes  the  edict  of  Nantz,  and  settles  a  jieace  with  Philip  II.  king  of 

Spain,  .......'• 

1599  Pbfl'.p  I.I.  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  Philip  III.  .  «• 

1609  Ph;lip  III.  closes  the  war  in  Holland  by  a  truce  of  twelve  years,  and  expels 

'.he  Moors  from  Spain,  .  '• 

1601   Ifpon  the  deafh  of  Phtiip  )F,  diesqu^en  Elizabeth,  and  is  succeeded  by  James 

VI-  of  Scotland    -on  of  Wary,  and  first  kin^  of  Great  Britwin,  as  James  I.         «• 

1610  H»nry  IV.  forms  the  plan  of  an  European  Pepub'ic,  with  France  at  its  head, 

and  •«  assassinated  by  a  Monk.— Lewis  XIII  mcceeds  to  the  throne,  186 

16-21   Pisln-P'-n?  «c».-ne»,  between  the  e van^f-lica'  union,  and  the  catholic  League, 

vrhicM    rage  (hfortgh  thereifnof  PnHip  III.  •  •          " 

IBS*  And  ibrou^h  the  ceig-noCCevin  XIII  .  •        " 

S«4?  Then  xmO-  r  L  v.  i  riV  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  when  the  Union  tri- 
umphs over  the  League,  ...  , 


CONTENTS.  39J) 

CHAP.  XXVI. 


Reformation  continued—  Great-Britain  under  James  L—  under  Charles  L 


1605 


.larnr*  I    the  first  of  the  House  of  Stewart,  gives   offence  to  the  Puritans  and 
Catholics,  which  occasions  the  gunpowder  plot,  so  called,  which  is  detected 


,  .  .  ,07 

1625  Jmips  kin<U««  afire  in  the  church  by  his  violent  religious  measures,  and  by 
his  proposed  match  for  hi*  son  Charles,  which  opens  the  controversy  of 
privilege  and  pr-roffative.  which  Charles,  at  his  accession  attempts  to  quiet 

ifiqn    nZ?  dlssoklnS  bis  parliament,  .  .  .  J89 

1  his  quarrel  increased  by  the  violence  of  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  and  arch- 
bishop Laud,  ...  .1. 

i*V     And  Produces  a  civil  war,  which  brings  to  the  block  the  Earl  of  Slraffbrd,        19  1 

«44     j\e*t  Aier.bishopLaud, 

1649     Then  the  execution  of  the  king,  and  the  trin/i.ph  of  the  Commonwealth  " 

CHAP.  XXVII. 

Great-Britain  under  Oliver  Cromwell  —  Charles  II  —  France  under 

Le-wis  XIV. 
A.  D. 
1660    Character  of  the  Commonwealth  under  Oliver  Cromwell—  Character  of  Rich- 

ard Cromwell  at   the  accession  of  Charles  II,—  Character  of  Charles  II    hig 

severity  toward  the  reformation  in  Scotland  i-  checked  bv  the  Polish  plot,     192 
1676  Charles  becomes  tributary  to  Lewis  XIV.  to  become  independent  of  his  refrac- 

tory parliament,  ....  .          J93 

1683  His  despotic  sway  occasions  the  Rye-house  plot,  to  restore  the  Commonwealth, 

which  occasions  the  borough  elections,  .  •• 

J685  Charles  dies  a  Catholic  —  James  II   duke  of  York,  and  brother  to  Charles  suc- 

ceeds— Remarks,  ....  •• 

1643  Affairs  of  France  upon  th     accession  of  Lewis  XIV.  his  character,  and  ambi- 

tious wars  in  Flanders,  f  ....  194 

1678  And  triumphs  at  th*  peace  of  Nimeguen  .  .  .  •• 

CHAP.  XXVIII. 

France  continued—  Europe  generally—  League  ofrfugsburgh  —  Remarks. 
A.  D. 

1683  Lewis  XIV    excites  a  war  of  the  Turk'  aprnins!  Austria,  .          195 

John  Sobieski,  king  of  Polund,  relieves  Vienna.  .  •• 

Lewis  concludes  a  peace  with  ?p<<jn,  and  the  emperor  and  augments  his  fleets  " 
The  Mrength  of  Lewis  fall*  with  the  death  of  his  m  inister  Colbert  " 

1685  Lewis  revoke*  the  edicts  of  Nant/,  and  gives  up  the  Protestants  to  extermina- 

tion, .  .  .  '-98 

1686  Thay  flee  from  France  ,  and  ruin  the  manufacturing  interest.  " 

1687  Lew'is  hiunbles  Pope  Innocent  XI    and  the    Protestants   form  the   League  of 

Augsburg  —  Remarks.  1  97 

CHAP.  XXIX. 

England  and  Europe.  generally,  from   the  accession  of  James  II.    to  the 
'  rite  of  'he  order  of  the  Jesuits. 

1(185  James  II.  commences  his  rei;rn  under  the  most  unfavorable   impressions,  and 

attempts  the  restoration  nf  Popery,  .          193 

1688  1  be  nation  resist,  pnd  incite  Wil  liarc,  prince  of  Oranare.  son-in-law  to  James, 

io  assume  th«  fro-ernm«nt  —  He  sets  sail  from  Holland  with  a  strong  arma- 
inpnt,  is  w-ll  received  in  England  and  Scotland, 

1689  James  attempts  to  head  an  insurrection  of  the  CathoKct  io  Ireland,  failj  and 


400  CONTENTS. 

A.  D- 

flees  to  France,  and  William  becomes  party  in  the  League  of  Augsburg,    *S* 
and  the  reformation  again  triumphs  in  England  .         199 

Lewis  put*  forth  all  his  efforts,  to  resist  the  League  of  Augsburg  :  takes  the 
field  in  1  landers,  * t  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and  the  war  becomes 
general,  .  ......  .  200 

1697  Great  display  of  talents,  by  Vauban,  and  the  war  closes  by  the  peace  of  Rys- 

wick — Remarks,  «...  •• 

CHAP.  XXX. 

Affairs  of  Europe  generally— northern  confederacy— capture  of  Gibral- 
ter  by  the  English. 

General  remarks,  .  .  201 

1698  The  Spanish  succession,  upon   the  declining  health  of  Charles  II.    opens  a 
lt>99       new  fieldof  ambition  and  intrigue,  by  secret  partition  treaties,  .         202 

The  grand  confederacy  of  the    north,  opens  a  new  drama,  .  " 

1701  Charles  II   upon  his  death,  confers  his  crown  upon  the  young  duke  of  Anjou 

—of  the   Bourbons,  .  .  .  .  .  203 

This  produces  the  grand  alliance  and  Lewis  XIV.  supports  his  grandson,     .      " 

1702  Upon  the  death  of  James  II     Lewis  XIV.  supports  the  claims  of    his  son, 

James  III  to  the  English  throne,  .  .  ... 

William  proclaims  war,  anddi.es — Queen  Ann  succeeds,  and  supports  the  war,  •' 
Lord  G«dolphin  and  the  Earl  of  Marlborough  take  the  helm  of  the  cabinet 

and  the  field  .  .•...«• 

1704  'I  he  war  rages  generally  in  the  south,  and  Gibralter  is  taken  by  the  English,  " 

1705  The  success  of  the  war  unites    Englandand  Scotland, and  presses  Lewis  to 

sue  for  peace,  •,.... 

CHAP.  XXXI. 

General  affairs  of  Europe  to  the  death  of  Lewis  XIV.  and  the  suppres 

sion  of  the  insurrection  in  Scotland. — Remarks. 
A.  D 
1707  Lewis  XIV  draws  bills  on  his  mint,  and  prosecutes  the  war,     which  rages 

with  various  saccess  until    17lO  .  .  .20; 

1710  Lewis  again  sues  for  peace,  and  obtains  the  conference  of  Gertruydenburg — 

this  fails  and  the  war  rages,  .  -  .  20£ 

1711  Q,ueen  Ann  changes  her  ministry,  and  parties  run  high  in   England,  a   secret 

treaty  the  result  in  consequence  of  the   death   of  the  emperor   Joseph  of 
Germany,  " 

1713  The  treaty  of  Utrecht  signed  March  31,  .  .  207 

1714  Treatv  of  Rastadt  with   the    emperor,    March  6,  •' 

The  'English  parliament  offer  a  bounty  on   the  head   of  James  III.         .          •• 
Queen  Ann  dies,  and  is  succeeded   by  George  I.  «« 

1715  Lewis  XIV.  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Lewis  XV  and  the  duke   of  Orleans 

takes  the  regency.  .  .  20: 

General  conspiracy  in  England  and  Scotland,  in  favor  of  James  III.  the  pre- 
tender, he ^landb  in  Scotland,  is  defeated  andfhes  to  France,  and  George  I, 
secures  the'throne,  .....  " 

General  remarks,  .  .  ,  .  .  20' 

CHAP.  XXXII. 

Europe  from  the  commencement  of  the  quadruple  alliance,  to  the  acces 

sion  of  Francis  I.  of  Austria. 
A.D 

1713  Quadruple  alliance  against  Spain.  , 


CONTENTS.  401 

A.».  Page 

1719  Mississippi  schema  in  France,  and  South  Sea  scheme  in  England,        .  3)0 

1723  The  war  rages  generally  until  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  opens  the 

way  for  the  peace  of  Se villa,  .  .  " 

1727  George  I.  dies  and  is  succeeded  by  his  son,  George  II.  ;  Lewis  XV.  accedes 
to  the  throne  of  France,  and  obtains  for  Stanislaus  Leckzinski,  ex-king  of 
Poland,  the  duchy  of  Lorrain,  ....  211 

1739  War  between  England  and  Spain,  which  becomes  a  war  of  plunder  on  the 

water,  .  .  .  •• 

1744  Lord  Anson  takes  a  Spanish  galleon  of  Chili,  and  conveys  the  treasures  by 

way  of  China  to  England,  .  •• 

The   death  of  Charles  VI.  of  Austria  opens  the  way  for  the  confederacy 
against  the  empress  Maria  Theresa,  .  .  .     212 

1742  The  elector  of  Bavaria  is  crowned  king  of  Bohemia,  and  emperor  of  Germany, 

as  Charles  Vll.  ... 

The  allies  take  Prague,  and  upon  the  treaty  of  Breslaw,  make  a  masterly 

retreat,  ....  213 

Spain  pushes  the  war  in  Italy,  and  the  French  sue  for  peace,  which  is  re- 
fused, .  .  .  . 

1744  This  refusal  kindles  afresh  the  feuds  in  England,  an*  the  claims  of  the  pre- 
tender are  renewed,  and  his  vast  armaments  for  the  invasion  of  England, 
blockaded  in  France;  a  general  peace  concluded  in  favour  of  Maria 
Theresa,  and  her  husband  the  emperor  Francis  I.  .  '• 


CHAP.  XXXIII. 

Europe,  from  the  accession  of  George  II.  to  the  confederacy  against  the 

king  of  Prussia,  and  war  of  1756. 
A.  D. 

1745  Charles  III.  son  of  Jamas  III.  the   pretender,  lands  in   Scotland  without  his 

armament— fights  the  battle  of  Cullodan,  and  flees  again  to  France,         .      214 
Philip  V    dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Ferdinand  VI.  .  21* 

1746  Prussia  and  Russia  unite  with  England  in  the  war,  " 

1747  Russia  unites  with  Austria  and  Saiony,  to  invade  Prussia — War  in  Bohemia 

and  battle  of  Prague,  .  •  •• 

1748  The  war  rages  generally,  and  is  closed  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle — 

Remarks, 

1754  Callissions  in  North  America  open  the  scene  for  the  seven  years  war,        .         21 S 

1755  The  English  commence  depredations  upon  French  commerce,        .  .     " 

1756  France.  Austria,  Russia  and  Sweden  unite  against   Prtssia,   and  the  French 

take  Minorca, 
'757  England  receives  German  troops  to  repel  a  French  invasion, 


CHAP.  XXXIV. 

Ventral  affair*  of  the  seven  years  war  in  Europe,  to  the  peate  •/  Paris, 
i.  D. 

This  war  raged  generally  with  various  success,  and  was  closed  in   Europe, 

by  the  peace  of  1763.  leaving  the  parties  in  statu  quo,  .        lit 

761  In  the  midst  of  this  struggle,  died  Geerge  II.  and  was  succeeded  by  kit 
grandsov, George  III. 

Remarks,  •  •  • 

George  III.  becomes  popular  by  prosecuting  the  war, 

A  congress  assembled  at  Augsburg  te  settle  the  preliminaries  »f  peace,  and 
••other  negotiation  opened  at  London  ;  bat  both  failed,  29* 

35 


402  CONTENTS. 

A.  D.  V*tS* 

1762  The  family  compact  of  the  Bourbons  in  the  courts  of  France  and  Spain  kin- 

dles the  flame  afresh,  .  225 

1763  The  successes  of  England  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  force  the  peace  of 

Paris,  and  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg, 

Remarks.  .  .  ... 

1713  The  bull  Unigentus  &o.  .  ... 

1756  Lewis  XV.  &c  .  ... 

Character  of  the  age,  .  ... 

CHAP.  XXXV. 

Discovery  and  settlement  of  North  America, 

1492  to  1812  Chronological  summary  of  the  discovery  and  settlement  of  America — 

and  remarks,  .  .  229  to  235 

1755  Causes  that  led  to  the  old  French  war,  .  .  237 

CHAP.  XXXVI. 

General  operations  of  the  seven  years  war  in  America,  to  the  peace  of 
1763 — iviih  some  remarks. 

A.  D. 

Causes  that  led  to  the  old  French  war,  continued,  .  287 

Commencement  of  operations  on  the  Ohio,  and  Monongahela, 

1756  War  «omn»ences  by  a  natal  action  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrenc*,  -  238 

1757  General  Braddock's  defeat  at  fort  Duquesne, 

The  French  take  O.iwego,  ...  .239 

And  fort  William  Henry,  ..... 

1758  Louisburg  tak«n — Frohtenac  fort  taken,  .  240 

CHAP.  XXXVI.  CONTINUED. 

1759  The  French    abandon    Duqu«sne. — Expedition    by    land    and    sea    against 

Canada,  .  .  .  240 

1759  Quebec  taken,  and  the  gallant  Wolf,  and  the  French  general  Montcalm  both 

slain,  .  .  .  .  241 

Remarks,  .  .'"'.'. 

1760  The  French  under  De  Levi  attempt  to  recover  Quebec,  243 
Montreal,  Canada,  and  all   French  America  fall   this  year,  and  all    further 

operations,  in  America,  cease. — Remarks, 

CHAP.  XXXVII. 

Causes  which  led  to  the  American  revolution — General  events  to  the  in* 

vasion  of  New- York. 
A.  D. 

Remarks,^  ...  246 

Chronological  summary,  .  .  .    s  .  «» 

1775  War  commences.— Battle  of  Lexington — Remarks,  .       248 

Boston  hcFJp.ged.  and  Ticonderogfa  tab  en,  .  .  247 

Geoeial  Congress  at  Philadelphia — General  Washington  appointed  com- 
mander in  ahief.  and  the  British  invested  in  Boston.— Congress  publish 
their  Manifesto,  and  prepare  <n>riously  for  action. 

Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  and  destruction  of  Cl:arle<*own  —  Expedition  by  way 
of  Kpnnebcc,  to  Queber  — G<  t  Howe  succeeds  general  Gage.— Falnnouth 
burnt  —  F.xpt- diuon  to  rap\d;i  under  Gunera!  Montgomery. — The  united 
forces  of  Montgomery  and  Arnold  commence  an  assault  upon  Quebec,  and 
foil — Monti-ornery  killed.  .  2-W 

J776  Genei-Ml  Vashington  fortifies  the  heights  of  T)or»hefter  which  occasions  gen- 
era! Howe  to  evacuate  Boston. — General  Washington  withdraws  from 
Boston  to  New-York,  aid  meets  genera  Howe  on  Long-Isiaad, 


iron 


CONTENTS.  403 

CHAP.  XXXVIII. 

Revolution  continued  to  the  capture  of  general  Prescolt  at  Rhode-Island ', 

September  1777. 

*..  D.  Page 

776  The  British  burn  Norfolk,  Vir  — British  expedition  to  South  Carolina  fails — 
Lord  Howe  arriyes  at  New-York  with  a  commission  to  settle  a  general  or 
separate  peacu  with  the  Colonies,  .  .  .  25fJ 

General  Washington  loses  th»  action  of  Flatbush,  and  retreats  off  of  Leng- 
Island,  retires  from  New-York,  and  invests  the  city.— General  Hovre  di»- 
lodje» general  Washington,  from  hi»  position,  gams  the  action  of  White 
Plains,  and  takes  the  fort  at  Harlem  and  Kingsbridge — General  Wash- 
ington, retired  into  New- Jersey,  general  Howe  pursues,  general  Washing- 
ton, retires  in  distress  by  forced  marches,  and  crosses  the  Delaware  at 
Trenton,  ...  251 

Recrosses  on  the  night  of  the  25th  of  December,  and  gains  the  battle  of 
Trenton,  262 

General  and  extensive  powers  given  to  general  Washington  by  Congress,  and 

the  cause  revises  from  deep  despair,  .  .  •        »  •• 

1*77  General  Washington  continues  offensive  operations,  and  drives  the  British  out 
of  .Yew- Jeisey.  into  New- York — Sir  Guy  Carlton,  and  general  Burgoyne 
<lriv*  the  Americans  out  of  Canada— General  Howe,  in  person,  attempts 
to  surprise  general  WHsbinjjton  in  hit  camp,  but  fails — Governor  Tryon, 
by  a  sudden  expedition,  burns  the  American  stores  at  Danbury — General 
How*  embarks  an  army  from  New- York,  upon  a  secret  expedition — Colo- 
nel Barton,  with  a  party  of  militia,  surprises  General  Prescott  and  his  aid, 
*a  Rhode-Island,  and  secure*  their  prisoners,  .  .  .  253 

CHAP.  XXXIX. 

Revolution  continued,  from  the  expedition  of  general  Hotoe  to  Philadel- 
phia, Sept.  1777,  to  the  battle  of  Camdtn  in  North  Carolina. 

A.  D. 

1777  General  Howe  enters  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  lands  at  Elk  ferry — General 
Washington  advances  to  meet  him — Battles  of  Chad's-ford  and  German- 
town— Capture  of  Philadelphia — distresses  of  the  American  army,  they 
invent  general  Howe  in  Philadelphia.  .  .  .  354 

Gineral  Rurgoyne,  taken  with  all  his  army,  .  .  2i6 

'778  France  and  Spain,  en°rage  in  the  war — Sir  Henry  Clinten,  evacuates  Phila- 
delphia— General  Washington  pursues  him  into  New-Jersey — gains  the 
battle  of  Monmoutb— general  Lee  is  cashiered,  .  «> 

Sir  Henry  regains  New- York  by  forced  marches — A  French  fleet  arrive  on 
the  coast — battle  off  Rhode  Inland — Anothe*  French  fleet  arrive  •»  the 
coast  of  South  Corolina,  co-operate  with  general  Lincoln  agaiast  the  Bri- 
tish at  Savannah,  fail  and  withdraw,  .  .  .  250 


1780  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  >-ith  Lord  Cornwallis.  commence  their  southern  expedi- 
tion, and  take  Charleston,  S.  C.  March  4.  ...  257 

General  Green  detached  upon  the  southern  command — Marquis  La  Fayette 
returns  from  France,  with  good  tidings— Lord  Cornwallis  subdues  South 
Carolina — Sir  Henry  Clinton  returns  to  New- York,  .  .  •' 

Congress  redeem  200,000,000  dollars  of  paper  money— Lord  Cornwallis  pro- 
ceeds' to  Cttmdeo,  in  South  Carolina,  fights  general  Gates,  and  destroys  his 
army,  .  .  .  .253 

CHAP.  XL. 

Revolution   continued  to  the  capture  of  Lord  CorntvalUs  at  Yorktevtn, 

October,  1781. 
A.  D. 
1780  General  Green  succeeds  general  Gatei  in  th«  southen  command,  259 


404 

A.  D.  j 

The  whole  Pennsylvania  line  revolt,  under  general  Washington, 
Jan.  They  are  recovered  to  their  duty. 
1781  The  war  rapes  in  the  south — battle  of  the  Cowpens, 

Battle  of  Quilford— General  Green  returns  to  North  Carolina,  fghts  lord 
Rawdon  at  Cairulen,  and  despairs  of  the  cause,  .  .  261 

General  Green  carries  the  war  into  South  Carolina, 

Lord  Cornwallis  advances  into  Virginia,  where  h«  is  opposed  by  Marquis  La 
Fayette,  general  Wayne,  and  baron  Steuben— A  French  fleet  arrives  at 
Newport.  R.  I  — Council  of  war  at  Hartford,  Connecticut, 

Arnold's  conspiracy  at  West-Point — Capture  and  execution  of  Major  Andre 
—Siege  of  New- York— French  fleet  is  reinforced  at  Newport  from  France, 
and  put  to  sea  ;  meets  the  English  fleet  off  the  mouth  of  the  Chesapeake, 
gains  an  action,  and  invests  lord  Cornwallis  at  Torktown — General  Wash- 
ington at  the  same  time  proceeds  by  land,  and  invests  the  British  at  York- 
town,  ...  .  . 
mi  Lord  Gornwallii  with  all  his  army  taken,  Oct.  20th, 


CHAP.  XLL 

General  affairs  of  America,  to  the  adoption  and  organization  of  tht  Fe- 
deral Constitution,  March,  1789 — Remarks. 
A.  D. 

J781  Religious  gratitude  of  the  American  army  and  nation,  upon  the  capture  of 

Yorktown.  ...  .  264 

The  French  fleet  retire  to  the  West  Indies — All  the  South  is  recovered  ex- 
cepting Charleston — Desperate  naval  action  in  the  West  Indies — Charles- 
ton evacuated,  and  negocjations  opened  at  Paris  for  peace, 

General  mutiny  in  the  army  of  General  Washington— is  quelled.  .          266 

1782  Peace   is  announced  by  a  letter   from    the   marquis  la  Fayette— The  British 

evacuate  New -York,  . 

General  Washington  exhibits  his  accounts  to  Congress — Resigns,  .  267 

1788  The  confederation  pro»es  insufficient  in  time  of  peace— A  general  convention 

frame  and  recommend,  the  federal  constitution—  The  several  states  adopt  it,  268 

1789  His  Excellency  General  Washington,  chosen  president — The  honorable  Jobs 

Adams  vice-president — General  good  effects — Remarks,  .  .         " 


CHAP.  XLII. 

.  IJfairs  of  America  continued — war  with  France—peace — war  -with  Eng- 
land— peeice — War  with  the  Sarbary  powers — general  peace,   1815 — 
general  remarks. 
A.  D. 

J 789  Federal  compact,  and  French  revolution,  .  .  26* 

1790  War  with  France — Peace.  .  •  .  " 

1812  War  with  England— general  eperations,  particularly  at  sea,  279 

'.313  General  Harrison  retakes  Detroit,  and  enters  Canada  victorious — Commodore 

Perry  captures  the  whole  British  fleet  upon  Lake  Erie.         .  272 

General  Harrison  triumphs  over    General   Proctor — Commodore    Chuuncey 

victorious  on  Lake  Ontario  .  .  " 

1814  The   British  take  Washington,  &c. — Commodore   Macdonouph   victorious  at 

Pl&tUburr, 

ISIS  General  Jarkson  defeats  the  British  at  New-Orleans—Peace  with   England, 
4th  of  February—  America  declares  war  against  Algiers,  and  forces  a  sub- 
missive peace  in  four  months,  •  '*~'^ 
Aeneral  remarks,                    .                    . 


CONTENTS.  405 

PART  THIRD. 
CHAP.  I. 


Causes  that  led  to  the  French  revolution— causes  that  led  to  the  great 
events  -which  controled  it — northern  confederation  against  Stoeden — rise 
of  Peter  I.— rise  of  Charles  X II.— character  of  Stoeden.  Russia,  Den- 
mark  and  Poland—invasion  of  Denmark,  and  peacs — siege  of  Narva — 
battle  of  Narva  -  battle  of  the  Dioina— intrigues  of  Charles  XII  in 
Poland -character  of  the  Polish  nation  and  government — intrigues  of, 
the  arch  bishop  of  Gresna— Distracted  state  of  Poland. 

A.  D.  Pag, 

1789  The  reformation,  in  the  midst  of  triumph,  is  called  to  endure  new  trials — 

General  effects  of  infidelity,  .  .  .  276 

1697  Peter  I.  visits  the  south  of  Kurope — Northern  confederacy,        .  .        078 

1700  Character  of  the  northern  powers,  .  .  . 

Charles  XII.  invades  Denmark,  and  forces  a  peace,  .  .  .    ,     280 

Passes  into  Livonia,  and  gains  the  battle  of  Narva,  .  .  281 

Augustus  raises  the  seige  of  Riga,  ....       283 

1701  Charles  XII.  and  general  Stenace,  fight  the  battle  of  the  Dwina,  .  " 
Character  of  the  republic  of  Poland,             .                 .                 .                          .     284 

1702  General  diet  of  Poland,  .  .   .  .  .286 

CHAP.  IT. 

.Augustus  attempts  a  secret  peace  -with  Charles  XII — battle  of  Cracow — 
battle  of  the  bog—ivar  in  Polish  Prussia— ijitrigue*  of  the  primate — 
Augustus  deposed  —  Stanislaus  Leckzinski  elected  king — capture  of 
I^eopold — coronation  of  Stanislaus. 

A.  D. 

1702  The  diet  dissolve— Charles   XII.  evades  overtures   for  peace  from  Augustus, 

and  enters  Warsaw,         ,        .  .  .  .  286 

Charles  routs  Augustusnt  the  battle  of  Cracow,  .  .  .        388 

1703  Again  at  the   river   Bog— carries    the   war  into   Polish   Prussia,    and   levies 

heavy  contributions  upon  the  chief  to\vns, 

1701  Deposes  Augustus,  and  causes  Stanislaus  to  be  elected  king  of  Poland,  289 

1705  Parties  become  more  violent,                 .                                                       .  " 

Charles  caises  Stanislaus  and  hit  queen,  to  be  crowned  at  Leopold,  .           290 

CHAP  III. 

Reduction  of  Narva,  by  Peter  I. — Peter  commences  the  city  of  Peters- 
burg— Charles  XII,  enters  Sajconii — peart  icith  Augustus — distresses  of 
Poland — Charles  XII,  commences  his  march,  into  liussia — battle  of  the 
Berezina. 

A.  D. 

1704  Peter  I.  lays  the  foundation  of  Petersburg,  .  .  291 

1705  Distresses  of  Poland,  continued,  .  .  .  892 

1706  Charles  enters  Saiony,  forces  Augustus  to  a  peace,  levies  enormous  contribu- 

tions, .  •• 

1707  Charles  remains  in  Saxony  and  the  distresses  of   Poland   continue — the  duke 

of  Marlboronfh  'iait»  Charles  XII.  .  293 

J703  Charles  drives  the  Russians  out  of  Poland,    and  commences   his  march  for 

Moscow,  294 

Gains  the  battles  of  Boristhenes  and  Morass,   comnwncen  a   treaty  with  M»- 
*r.rpa,  ...  296 

35* 


406  CONTENTS- 

A.D.  p,ge 

1709  Passes  the  winter  in  the  Ukrain,  and  loses  his  supplies  iroia  Sweden  under 

general  Levenhaupt,  .  .  28i 

Charles  commences  the  siege  of  Pultowa,  in  May,  and  is  wounded — is  defeat- 
ed by  the  Czar,  in  July   and  flies  into  Turkey,  .  .  .       297 
Peter  1 'prosecutes  the  building  of  Petersburg,  recovers  Poland,  and  restores 
Augustus  to  his  crown — Charles  intrigues  with  the  Sublime  Porte,        .        291 

CHAP.  IV. 

Peteter  I.  enters  Moscow  in  triumph— war  between  Turkey  and  Russia — 
perilous  escape  of  Peter  I.— peace— intrigues  of  Charles  X//.— battle 
of  Bender — war  rages  in  the  Swedish  provinces  of  Germany. 

1710  Peter's  triumphant  entry  of  Moscow,                        .  .                 .          299 

1711  The  Tizier  declares  war  against  Russia,  .                        .                    300 
Perilous  escape  of  Peter — peace,                 .  .                        .             SOI 

1712  Intrigues  of  Charles  continued — Battle  of  Bender,  .                     .        30* 

1713  War  rages  with  violence  in  the  Swedish  provinces,  .                     " 

CHAP.  V. 

Charles  XIL  returns  to  Sweden — defence  of  Stralsund — naval  operationt 
upon  the  Baltic— Peter  I.  enters  Petersburg  in  triumph— fall  of  Stral- 
tund. 

A.  D. 

1714  Charles  XII.  leaves  Turkey  on  his  return  to  Sweden, 

Peter  gains  a  signal  naval  victory,  and  enters  the   port  of  Petersburg  in  tri- 
umph, ....  .  304 

1715  The  enemies  of  Charles  invade  his  dominions,  •  •  •• 
Charles  attempts  the   defence  of  Stralsund,  and  fails — battle  of  the  Island  «f 

Rugen,  ....  308 

1716  Stralsund  surrendered, 

CHAP.  VI. 

Invasion  of  Norway — Baron  De  Gorts — death  of  Charles  XII— peace — 
character  of  Peter  I.  and  Charles  XU.— immediate  causes  of  the  French 
revolution. 

Charles  XII.  invades  Norway,  and  fails — Peter  I.   again  visits  France  and 
Holland — Barren  De  Gortz  turns  the  war,  of  the  north  into  intrigue,  308 

1717  Charles  XII    again  invades  Norway,  and  is  killed  before  FrederishaH,  •» 

1718  Tke  prince  of  Hesse  leads  back  the  army  to  Sweden — peace  with  Denmark 

ensues — De  Gortz  is  executed — Ulrica  Eleonora  is  elected  queen,  and  con- 
fers the  erown  upon  her  husband,  the  prince  of  Hesse,  .  .         3C§ 
1721  Peace  between  Sweden  and  Russia, 

Remarks  upon  Charles  and  Peter,  and  upon  the  causes  of  the  French    revo- 
lution, .  ... 

CHAP.  VII. 

Jansenisls  and  Jesuits — assembly  of  the  states-general— revolution  opened 
— Paris  becomes  one  great  mob — the  king  a  cypher— flight  of  the  king 
— convention  formed— new  constitution, 

A.  D. 

1774  State  of  France,  at  the  accession  of  Lewis  XVI. 
Quarrel  of  the  JanseHists  end  Jessits  c  eat  IBB*  d, 


CONTENTS.  407 

A.  D.  Pag« 

1789  Revolution  commences,  with  the  destruction  of  the  Bastile,  .  .         312 

1790  The  national   assembly  assume  ihe   government,  and   the  feinj   is  conducted 

from  Versailles  to  Fans,   by  60,000  men,   lodged  in   hit   pala.ce,   and  held 
under  duress,  .  .  .313 

1791  The  emigrants  assemble  in  arms,   on  the   frontier,  and  threaten  an  invasion, 

which  excites  violence,  and  general  alarm,  .  .  314 

New  constitution  is  tinished,  .  3li 

CHAP.  VIII. 

Lewis  XVI.  signs  the  new  constitution — clubs  of  the  Feuillans  and  Jaco- 
bins— decrees  of  .the  National  Assembly — treaty  of  Vienna. — riots  in 
Paris — coalition — duke  of  Brunswick— flight  of  the  king. 

A.D. 

1792  Speech  of  Lewis  XVI.  when  he  signs  the   constitution — general   feslirity  of 

Paris,  .  .  .  .316 

New  legislative  assembly— the  Jacobin  club  arise  upon  the  ruins  of  Feuillans,  317 
Ctndorcet's  maifesto — Convention   between  the   kings  of  Prussia  and  Bohe- 
mia. .  .  318 
Organization  of  the  re»»lutionary  tribunal — Invention  of  the  guillotine,               319 
New  political  logic,  "  the  end  justifies   the  means," — great  mob   in   Paris, 

June  -iO,  ..-.;.,  .  .  «• 

Duke  of  Brunswick  takes  the  field  against  France,  which  causes  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  king,  .  . 

CHAP.  IX. 

Mob  of  the  10th  of  August — bold  measures  of  the  assembly— Doumourier — 
La  Fayette — massacres — National  Convention — trial  of  Lewis  XVI. 
— condemnation. 

A.D. 

1792  Twenty-five  thousand  fall  in  the  massacre  of  the  10th  of  August — Decree  of 

the  assembly,  for  the  call  of  a  convention,  .  320 

The  king  and  royal  family  confined   in   the  Temple — Marquis  La  Fayette 
denounced,  flies,  and  imprisoned  in  Olmutz — The  Old  quarrel  of  Jansenist 
and  Jesuits  breaks  out  in  the  memorable  mob  of  Paris,  Sept.  2, 
Massacre  at  Orleans — Germany  declares  war  against  France,         .  .        322 

The  Convention  commences  their  sitting,  and  appoints  a  committee  to  frame  a 

new  constitution,  .  .  323 

Jan   1793  They  call  Lewis  XVI.  to  their  bar,  try  and  condemn  him, 

CHAP.  XII. 

Execution  of  Lewis  XVI. — violence  of  the  Convention — Charlotte   Corde 

— trial  and  execution  of  the  Queen—  triumplis  of  Philosophy. 
A.D. 

1793  Horrors  of  the  awful  2lst  of  January,  .  .        S25 

Execution  of  the  king — assassination  of  La  Pallitiere, 
Assassination  of  Murat,  by  Charlotte  Corde  — Arrest,  trial  and  condemnation 

of  the  queen,  .  .  .  376 

Execution  of  the  queen.  February  16,  ...  327 

The  schools  of  the  Jesuits  and  Philosophers,  unite  in  the  Jacobin  club,  and 
become  the  instruments  of  their  own  ruin— General  distress  of  the  cation, 
particularly  in  La  Vendee— The  convention  decree,  "  no  God,  and  death 
»D  eternal  sleep."  .  .  .  32* 


408  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  XI. 

Insurrection  of  La  Vendee— fall  of  Robespierre — grand  armistice  of  La 
Vendee — Jacobin  insurrection — death  of  Lewis,  son  of  the  king — new 
constitution — revolution  in  Holland. 

A.  D  Page 

1794  War  continues  to  rage  in  La  Vendee— Triumph  of  philosophy,  .             329 
Carrier's  report  on  the  Vendeean  War— Fall  of  Robespierre  and  Tmrille,        330 
Rhapsody  of  Geraud,                     .                        .  •• 

1795  Arruijtiee  in  La  Vendee,  and  report  of  Carnot,         .  •             •            331 
Horrors  of  Paris  and  of  the  convention,                              •  •                       " 
New  constitution  and  murder  of  the  dauphin,         .  •            332 

1796  The  princess  Maria  Antoniette  sent  to  Vienna,             .  •* 
Grand  revolution  in  Holland,                    .                     .                    •  •            " 

CHAP.  XII. 

State  of  France — movement  of  the  armies — Napoleon  Bonaparte — -peace 
with  Spain — conquests  in  Italy — Milan. 

Recapitulation,  .  ... 

1794  Conquests  of  Belgium,  under  general  Dumourier,  .  .  334 
He  leries  contributions,  rifles  their  churches  ;  which  raise   insurrections,  and 

loses  the  conquests,                                                                  •  •                    *' 

1795  General  Pichegru  succeeds  Dumourier,  and  subdues  Holland,  •                 •           " 

1796  General  Moreau  succeeds  Pichegru,  and  invades  Germany,  .               336 
View  of  the  plan  of  the  campaign, 

Napoleon  Bonaparte — becomes  genera)  in  chief  of  the  army  of  Italy—invades 

Spain,  and  forces  a  pea.ce. 

Invades  Italy — gaius  the  battles  of  Montenolte  and  Millesimo,  .  39$ 

Hi»  address  to  the  cities  of  Milan  and  Pavia,  .  • 

CHAP.  III. 

Rattle  of  Castiglione — bridge  of  Lodi— panic  of  the  400 — siege  of  Man- 
tua— campaign  of  the  Rhine,  Meuse  and  Moselle — victories  of  print* 
diaries— fall  ofKerl — of  Mantua. 

A.  D. 

1796  Action  of  Castiglione,  and  affair  of  Lodi, 
Siege  of  Mantua, 

Success  of  general  Bonaparte  over  three  successive  armies,  sent  to  the  re- 
lief of  Mar.lua—  England  senus  lord  Malmsbury  to  Paris,  to  negociate  for 
a  peace — which  fails,  .  • 

Mantua  is  closely  invested,         . 

Generals  Moreau  and  Jourdan  penetrate  into  Bavaria  in  triumph,  over  princ* 
Charles,  which  calls  forth  a  proclamation  of  the  emperor  of  Germany, 

Actions  of  Donawert  and  Nordingen  compel  prince  Charles  to  cross  tne  Dan- 
ube, ....  3<1( 

General  Moreau  penetrates  into  the  heart  of  Bavaria;  but  the  successes  of 
prince  Charles  over  general  Jourdon,  oblige  them  both  to  retire  out  of 
Germany.  a,nd  recross  the  Rhine  with  a  severe  loss. 

1797  The  French  sustain  a  siege  in  the  fortress  of  Kehl  forty  days,   and  at  last  snr- 

render  to  prince  Charles  by  assault. 
Mantua  surrenders  to  general  Bonaparte  the  same  day, 


CHAP.  XIV. 


Submission  of  the  pope — triumphs  of  the  campaign — treaty  of 
Formio— -armament  of  Toulon — capture  of  Malta— battle  of  the  tftt 


'  Campi 
the  Ml, 


CONTENTS.  409 

—conquest  of  Egypt — defeat  at  Acre— general  Bonaparte  returns  to 
Egypt — to  France— new  coalition. 

A.  D.  Pag« 

1797  Campaign  closes,  .  .  341 

The  Pope  becomes  submissive,  .  •• 

Gensial  Bonaparte  triumphs  over  prince  Charles  in  the  mountains  of  the  Ty- 
rol, and  the  emperor  sues  for  peace,  .  .  343 
Feb.  19.  The  peace  of  Campo  Formio  closes  the  war,  and  liberates  the  marquis  La 

Fayette  from  Olmutz— Successes  of  the  war,  .  " 

1793   The  popularity  of  Bonaparte  causes  the  armament  at   Toulon,  and  expedition 

to  Egypt,  .  .  •« 

Battle  of  Aboukir,  .  .  .  343 

Capture  of  Alexandria,  and   conquest  of  Egypt,,— invasion  of  Syria,  and  de- 
feat at  Acre,  ....  344 
1799  General  Bonaparte  returns  to  Egypt — from  thence    to   France  ;  there   learns 

the  distresses  arising  from  the  new  coalition,  .  •  345 

CHAP.  XV. 

General  Surwarrow  enters  Italy — battle  of  Switzerland — invasion  of 
Holland — general  Bonaparte  Jirst  consn1 — b'tttle  of  Jlfarengo— in- 
fernal machine — northern  armed  neutrality — peatc  of  Luneville — 
war  between  Spain  and  Portugal — battle  of  Copenhagen. 

1799  The  war  is  renewed  generally,  in  Germany  and  Italy— Stirwarrow  i«  trium- 
phant, until  his  tve»tb?ovr  in  Switzerland  by  Massena,  which  pro^tss  his 
ruin,  .  .  846 

The  duke  of  York  invades  Holland,  is  unsuccessful,   ana  signs  a  convention 

to  save  his  army, 

€renera!  Bonaparte,  b<  a  revolution  establishes  a   consular   government,  and 
become-"  first  oousul  for  ten  vears — gain*  the  ba.tlt  of  Mar»ngo  and  recov- 
ers J;aiy.  .  347 
1300  This  wilt-.  ii  •  -iiii r-    -»r»  in  Germany  causes  the  pei..-f  oi'  Paris,  July,  348 

Nortln  1 1.  .      -i  •>'  £         I  rfiil  V.  " 

1801  Thr>  I  -ric     ]-u>!  Wrti-  .  uiiti'  fh<>  * -.u*.-* I  peace  of  Lunetille,  Jan.  28,  " 
Th-      ,,!rl--N  in.-'jL  ,  ,.{   .nnriei  lord  K   K<                                                 .              •• 
Egjipt  rabdued,  and  araverfci  pe«ce   ».UBO?«,  Oct  —  .A  general   embargo  upon 

the  pow.  -s  of  trip  northern   eonln!   -,.;>,  by  Knviu.-id,  produces  a  rupture 
with  !>-.       rk,  ••  !.<ch  rlo^es  w>th  the  battie  of  Copenhagen, 
Itussia  declares  wa<  agaiii't  France, 

CtlAP.  XVL 

Revolution  in  St.  Dorrin? .- — ckat  acier  of  the  black  chiefs — tonquftt  of 
Hanover— first  consul  choner,  for  fife — made  emperor  of  France — 
Austrian  wm — -fall of  Vifuni. — batt'e  of  Jlusterlitz — yeaceicith  Aiu- 
tria — war  between  England  and  Spain. 

A.  D. 

1802  The  universal  jieat-e  opeT   th«   way   for  the  Coosnl  of  France,  to  s«nd  tbe 

army  j-f  Eyvpi  out  to  St    Domingo.  i,n<lf  r  ^encrnl  Le  Clerc,  to  subdue  the 
«M»s«rs  of'libertv  and  f quality  amer»- tht   blacki,  .  .  350 

This  ejpediff.n  failVanH  establishes  the  kingdom  ot  Hayti, 

Characifr  of  the  blac1*  clii^fs  Hiid  government, 

First  Consul  made  Consul  for  life— controuU  the  press, 

Anerdotf  of  th»*  marquin  La  Fayelte. 

1803  F.njiand  declares  war  a<jain»t  Fraace.  and  rhe  French  take  Hanover,  .        •• 
1304  First  Consul  made  emperor,  i>y  a  «ub»cripti*-i-  »oie. 

J305  Austria  «trengtb«-ns  her  position  at  Ulm,  and  joins  a  new   confederacy  agamit 

France. 

The  emporor  Napoleon,  by  a  sudden  mo.ement,  appears  before  Ulm,  defeats 
o-eneral  Mac  ;  appears  before  Tienna.  takes  it  ,  appear?  in  Moravia  ;  gains 
Ike  battle  «f  Auttrlitz,  ever  tie  •mpcror  of  Rusiia  ;  settlei  a  pea«t, 


410  CONTENTS. 

A.  D.  Page 

returns  in  triumph  to  France  ;  again  threateni  England,  ani  rerolutioaizei 
Holland,  ;  .  353 

CHAP.  XVII. 

Emperor  Napoleon  on  the  throne  of  Charlemagne — battle  of  Trafalgar 
— confix  deration  of  the  Rhine — Prussian  war— battle  of  Jena — ofEy- 
lau — of  Friedland — peace  of  Tilsit — Berlin  decree — treaty  of  Fon- 
tainb!mu — Bayonne  decree— fall  of  Charles  IV.  and  Ferdinand  V1L 
— capture  of  Madrid. 

A..  D. 

May  1.   The  emperor  Napoleon  crowned  king  of  Italy  and  becomei  the  regular  roc- 

ce»»or  of  Charlemagne,  .  .  354 

Oct  21     Rattle  of  Trafalgar,  .  .  •• 

1806  «oufederation  of  the  Rhine  closes  — New  coalition  of  England,   Russia,  and 

Prussia  against:  France,  3S£ 

The  emperor  Napoleon  advances  into  Germany,  and  gains  the  battles  of  Jean, 
Eylauand  Friedlnnd.  .  356 

1807  Dictates  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  passes  his  Berlin  decree,  . 
K".."..w«d  by  tbe  embargo  in  America,                  .  .  357 

18    8  Ictiigues  with    Spain  for  the   reduction   of  Fortugul,  seizes  on  the  crown  of 

Spain,  and  places  it  upon  his  brother  Joseph,  .  .         358 

CHAP.  XVIII. 

Spanish  Junta  declare  war — Joseph  Bonaparte  king  of  Spain— fall  of 
general  Dupont — conquest  of  Rome — kingdom  of  Holland — confer- 
ence at  Erfnrth — battle  ofCorvnna — Austrian  war — b  title  of  Ratis- 
bon—fall  of  Vienna — battle  ofLobau — of  Wagram — -peace  with  Aus- 
tria— invasion  of  Holland  by  the  English. 

A.  I). 

Hasnacre  at  Madrid — French  and  Spaniard*  entar  Lisbon,  and  the  royal  fam- 
ilv  retire  to  Brazil — General  Dupont  is  taken  with  his  whole  army, 
which  occasion*  king  Joseph  to  quit  Madrid — Th«  emperor  Napol««n 
erects  Hplland  into  a  kingdom,  places  his  brother  Louis  on  the  thron* — 
MefftJ  th«  emperor  Als*ander»t  Erfarth, 

Repairs   o  Spain,  and  gain*  the.  battle  of  Cerrunna,  •  •         3fi( 

J809  W«r  <:otr;merces  between  Austria  and  Fiancn, 

The  en  ,4eror  Napoleon,  by  rapid  movements,  gains  the  battle  of  Ratisbon, 
over  prince  Charles;  lakei  Vienna,  loses  the  battle  of  Lobau,  gain*  the 
b.mlf  of  Was; ram,  and  pursues  the  prince  to  Presburg,  •  ^ 

NOT.  8.    Return*  to  Vienna,  and  dic'atet  a  peace  to  the   emperor  of  Austria— The 
English  take  the  island  of  Walcherea  in  Holland, 

CHAP.  XIX. 

The  imperial  continental  system — divorce  of  the  empress  Josephine,  am 
marriage  of  Jll «?v>  Louisa  of  Austria — war  with  Spain — icar  if 
Turkey — war  •;  Portugal — birth  of  the  imperial  heir  of  France— pre 
parations for  the  Russian  war-  America. 

The  emperor  Napoleon  returns  to  Fiance,  and  pres?«s  his  continental  system.   SC 

1809  Ui»wcrii  his  \vife  Josep'ine,  and  rnarriec  the  arch   duchess,    Maria  Louisa  of 

1810  Austria, 

phi^s  for  th- Russian  war.  l>y  >-•••:(  treaties  with    Austria  »>nd  Prussia- 
sends  oRncral  Msssena    with   "0  K'V  in  «    to   sub'!!]*'  Portugal — War  rages 
n  Spain  and  Portugal    with  .  iiiious  success—  Amount  of  the  emperor   Na- 
oleen's  fcrce — Causes  of  the  support  of  the  English  finds. 


CONTENTS.  411 


Page 
AD  imperial  heir  born  to  Napoleon — Intrigues  of  Poland — Union  of  Holland 

with  France,  .  .  .  364 

1811-12  War  rage?  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  with  various  success,         .  .  365 

The  whole  Christian  world,  both  in   Europe   and  America,  becomes  one  great 
theatre  of  intrigue,  and  America  joins  the   coalition  against  Russia,  bj   a 
ar  with  .England,  .  .  •  377 


CHAP.  XX. 


Commencement  of  the  Russian  war  —  American  wat  —  movements  in  the 
Russian  war  —  battle  of  Smolensk  —  of  Borodino—  fall  and  destruction 
Moscow. 


of 
.  D. 


The  emperor  Napoleon  assembles  his  army  in  Poland,  for  the  Russian  war,        367 
Convention  between  Russia  and  England—  Mcvementi  of  the  armies—  Battle 

of  Smol«n»k,  .... 

Battle  of  Borodino,  .... 

Capture  and  destruction  of  Moscow,        .  .  .       •  369 

CHAP.  XXI. 

Character  of  the  Russians  —  overtures  of  peace—  firmness  of  the  emperor 
Alexander  —  views  of  Napoleon  —  retreat  of  the  French—  flight  of  No- 
poleon  —  destruction  of  the  French  army-i-the  emperor  Napoleon  in 
Paris  —  again  in  Saxony,  at  the  head  of  his  new  army  —  battle  of  Ldp- 
sic  —  Napoleon  in  Paris  —  successes  of  Lord  Wellington  —  restoration 
of  the  family  of  Bourbon  —  Napoleon  at  Elba  —  Lord  Wellington  in 
.Paris  —  Napoleon  in  Paris  —  battle  of  Waterloo  —  Napoleon  in  Eng- 
land —  at  St.  Helena  —  Lewis  X  Vlti.  again  in  Paris  —  Lord  Wel- 
lington again  in  Paris  —  the  empress  Maria  Louisa,  with  her  little 
son  at  Milan. 

A.  D. 

1822  The  emperor  Napoleon  makes  overtures  of  peace  in  Moscow,  which  the  empe- 

ror Alexander  rejects,  .  .  .  S7t 

The  rmp«ror  Nap*leon  begins  bis  retreat  —  Deserts  hig  army  at  Krasnoy,  and 
flies  to  Paris  ;  and  his  urmy  is  ruined.  .  .  371 

1813  Assembles  a  new  army,  and  repairs  to  Saiony—  Meets  the  allies  of  Russia., 

Adutria.  Sweden  anA  I'russia  —  Fights  1h«  battle  of  Leiptic,  372 

And  flies  into  France  —  The  allies  pursue,  enter  France,  to  co-operate  with 
Lord  Wellington,  who  had  driven  the  French  out.  of  Spain,  in  «he  siege  of 
Paris  —  They  take  .Vapoleon  and  banish  him  to  Elba  —  In  six  monihs  he  is 
again  in  Paris,  at  the  head  of  the  government  —  Fi^hu  the  battle  of  Wa- 
terloo fli*sinto  France,  resigns  his  crown,  delivers  fcimsulf  op  to  the  cap- 
tain ofar.  EnHish  fii?»'r,  is  convyed  to  EngUnd,  sent  to  St  He.ent  for 
life,  and  Lewis  XVIII  restored  to  his  throne,  protected  by  lord  Wen":n»- 
ton.—  The  empress  Maria  Louisa  in  Milan,  with  h«r  too,  .  373  to  874 

CHAP.  XXII. 

A.D. 

18-20  Revolutions  in  Spain, 

The  Km?  swear*  to  the  Cffnstitution  of  1812, 

Rev.liitiori  in  Portugal,  .  .  .  .       3.« 

R«  rotation  *tt«mpt«d  fa  Ntpfot, 

Revolution?  in  South  Amoii<  a,  .  . 

1820  Resolution  in  Mexico, 
1841    RevoltiMoa  »tte<n|>ied  in  England, 
1321  Trial  of  the  Q,ueen  of  Eugland, 


412 


CONTENTS 


A.D. 

1821  Death  of  the  Q,««en, 

Coronation  of  George  IV. 

Death  of  Napol«on,  .  • 

Insurrection  in  Turkey 

War  with  Persia, 

General  prosperity  of  the  U.  S.  • 

Peace  with  Spain, 

Floridas  ceded,  and  boundaries  settled, 

Great  Canals, 


376 

377 


THE    ENB. 


AUTO.  DISC. 



1986 


24886 


GENERAL  LIBRARY  -  U.C.  BERKELEY 


